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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2007 with funding from 
Microsoft Corporation 


Ι 


httos://archive.org/details/moderngreekitsprOOtimarich 


THE 


MODERN GREEK: 


ITS 


PRONUNCIATION AND RELATIONS TO ANCIENT GREEK,: 


WITH AN 


APPENDIX ON THE RULES OF ACCENTUATION, 


ETC. 


BY 


: T. T. TIMAYENIS, 


OF THE SPRINGFIELD COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE. 





Fe Pm τ 
ῥ. bd BRAK yA 
UNIVERSITY OF | 


PoC VET PORES «A 
NEW YORK: | 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 549 & 551 BROADWAY. 
SPRINGFIELD, MASS. : 
J. D. GILL, 260 MAIN STREET. 
1877. 


CoPpyRIGHT, 1877, 
By T. T. TIMAYENIS. 


PY DEL 


University Press: Wetcu, BIGELow, & Co., 
CAMBRIDGE. 


TO THE 


REV. M. C. STEBBINS, A.M., 
PRINCIPAL OF THE SPRINGFIELD COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE, 
This Dolume 


IS MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED, 


AS A TOKEN OF ADMIRATION 


FOR DISTINGUISHED ABILITIES SUCCESSFULLY DEVOTED TO THE PROMOTION OF CLASSICAL 
LEARNING IN THIS COUNTRY, 


AND A MEMORIAL OF FRIENDSHIP 


WHICH HAS EXISTED UNBROKEN DURING MANY YEARS OF ALMOST 
DAILY INTERCOURSE, 


THE AUTHOR. 





Ι Ι͵ I ἰ > ἰὴ Α i , ἃ 
| U Wed rie as cia hei 
| 4 \ I HP νυ i ᾿ ὶ ( ) hy | 


δὰ GA Le ΠῚ ΣΡ ΤΙ I 
pen aiey, ae et Tee TR Pe ; J 


} 


PREFACH, 


In preparing this volume, I have made frequent use 
of the “‘Ioropia τῆς ᾿Ελληνικῆς Γλώσσης,᾽ by the late 
Professor D. Mavrophredes (Smyrna, 1871). Important 
aid has also been received from Professor Geldart’s work 
on “The Modern Greek Language in its Relation to 
Ancient Greek.’? Other works which I have advan- 
tageously consulted are, Anastasius Georgiades’ ‘“ Trac- 
tatus de Elementorum Grecorum Pronunciatione,” Gr. 
et Lat., Paris, 1812; “ Eclaircissements tirés des Lan- 
gues sémitiques sur quelques points de la Pronunciation 
Grecque”’; Professor Clyde’s ““" Romaic Greek ”’; Sopho- 
cles’ ““ Romaic Greek Grammar” and “ Glossary of Later 
and Byzantine Greek.’’ Frequent references have been 
made also to the works of ancient and modern Greek 
authors, especially to those that have touched upon the 
subject of Greek pronunciation. But my obligations 
are much greater to Konstantinus Oekonomos, whose 
work, “Περὶ προφορᾶς τῆς ᾿Ελληνικῆς Γλώσσης," St. 
Petersburg, 1829, has been constantly by me. 

The subject of Greek pronunciation has been often 
“discussed by scholars since the time of Erasmus, who 
was the first to propagate that new system of pronun- 
ciation known as the Erasmian system. Scholars to-day, 


vi PREFACE. 


generally speaking, although more or less convinced of 
the fact that the EHrasmian system of Greek pronuncia- 
tion is quite at variance with the nature of Grecian 
phraseology, with the testimony of ancient authors, and 
established principles of history and logic, yet tolerate 
this pronunciation because “they do not see that any 
good will result to students by adopting the pronun- 
ciation now prevalent in Greece.” They say, ‘“ We 
study Greek for the culture it imparts; we do not care 
which is the true pronunciation’?! Now, we study the 
“queen of languages,” the language of infinite flexibility 
and of unequalled vigor, the language which speaks to 
the ear like French, to the mind like English, — the 
language which possesses a literature enshrining works 
“not only of imperishable interest, but also of imperish- 
able importance for the development of human thought ”’ ; 
we study the language without which human knowledge 
would appear like the year without spring, or like the 
day without its bright sun; and yet we say, “ We do not 
care how we pronounce such a language ’”’! 

Now, we believe with the Rev. F. W. Farrar, that 
the reasons why we spend so long a time in acquiring the 
mastery of the Greek are, because the Greek is one of 
the most delicate and perfect instruments for the expres- 
sion of thought which was ever elaborated by the mind 
of man, and because it is therefore admirably adapted, 
both by its points of resemblance to our own and other 
modern languages, and by its points of difference from 
them, to give us the idea or fundamental conception of 
all Grammar; that is, of those laws which regulate the 
use of the forms by which we express our thoughts. 
Again, the Greek being a “ synthetic language,’ many of 

its advantages lie in its compactness, precision, and 


PREFACE. vii 


beauty of form. Now, suppose we grant that the advan- 
tages we seek to obtain from the study of the Greek 
cannot be increased by a change of pronunciation ; yet, 
we claim, that by adopting the pronunciation prevalent in 
Greece, Grecian philology would receive a new impetus. 
Scholars in this country and elsewhere, would be better 
able to judge of the literary productions of the modern — 
Greeks ; they would better observe how many idioms and 
peculiarities of language prevalent among the ancient 
authors, still remain unchanged in the language of the 
modern Greeks; and, finally, the study of modern lan- 
guage would become easier to the young student, be- 
cause the euphony, grace, and variety of sound and 
harmony of the pronunciation of the modern Greeks, 
have in a greater or less degree been wrought into all 
the modern languages. Hence, their pronunciation is 
comparatively an easy matter to attain, if one is thor- 
oughly drilled in the sounds which the modern Greeks 
give to the vocal elements of their language. On the 
other hand, the Erasmian system, an author remarks, 
‘causes its adherents to lose all delicacy, euphony, and 
accuracy of expression or sound.” | 
The appendix ‘on accentuation,’ although it may 
seem foreign to a work of this kind, has been added at 
the request of many instructors. It is to be hoped that 
by means of the rules which are there given, the study 
of this difficult branch of knowledge will become easier 
and more interesting to the young student. A few other 
srammatical rules have been added, which seem to me 
are not given fully, either in Professor Goodwin’s or 
Hadley’s Grammar. Professor Zelf’s and Professor 
Gennadius’ Grammars have been consulted in. the prep- 
aration of these rules. Scholars are wont to confound 


Vili PREFACE. 


Romaic with Modern Greek, and this sad mistake, it seems 
to me, is mainly to be attributed to that statement of 
Professor Sophocles, who in the preface of his Romaic 
Grammar says, ‘ Romaic, or, as it is often called, Modern 
Greek.’’ Now, Professor Clyde asserts that “this glar- 
ing mistake has influenced the opinions of many British 
scholars, and proves most conclusively that “ Professor 
Sophocles has confounded things which differ.’ But 
not only Professor Clyde, but Professor Geldart also 
remarks, “Κ΄ Sophocles’ works, especially his Grammar, 
require to be used with caution. For the headings ‘ An- 
cient’ and ‘ Modern’ which he places over his various 
paradigms, should be read, in nearly every case, ‘ Lan- 
guage of Polite Society’ and ‘ Language of the Common 
People’ or ‘ Cultivated’ and “ Vernacular’; for the so- 
called ancient forms never died out, but may nearly all be 
found in the more cultivated modern Greek . . . Again, 
in other ways truth is sacrificed by Professor Sophocles 
to system, as when he gives τοῦ πατέρα, τοῦ ἄνδρα, as the 
modern Greek for τοῦ πατρός, τοῦ ἀνδρός. These forms 
occur no doubt, but the classical forms are more common 
even in the vernacular.” ... 

But the reason why Professor Sophocles, a Greek him- 
self, and a scholar of so distinguished a reputation, has 


- committed so serious a mistake is to be attributed to the 


fact that he left Greece many years ago, when quite a 
young man, and when education in Greece was in a sad 
condition. Hence, Professor Sophocles is familiar with 
the vernacular Greek of his times, — which in fact might 
be ‘called ““ Romaic Greek,” — but since the emancipa- 
tion of Greece and the establishment of the University 
and other schools of learning ““ Romaic Greek” has en- 
tirely disappeared, and in its stead the modern Greek, 


PREFACE. 3 ΙΧ 


which is the newest phase of the old Greek, has resumed 
its place. 

It is not my purpose now, nor is this the place, to state 
fully the distinction there exists between Romaic and Mod- 
ern Greek. Suffice it to say, that this difference cannot 
be better indicated in brief, than by that which exists 
between “ broad Scotch”’ and “ good English.” Professor 
Clyde says ‘“‘ there are phrases in one unknown to the 
other, like the famous ‘ neffow οὐ glawr,’ which all the 
English of George IV. and his boasted knowledge of 
Scotch to boot, were not able to explain.” | 

There remains for me the pleasant duty of tendering 
my warmest thanks, first of all, to the Rev. M. C. Steb- 
bins, principal of the Springfield Collegiate Institute, 
without whose valuable assistance I doubt much if this 
volume would have ever seen the light. Not only has his 
kind and valuable service aided much in the construction 
of the plan and the development of the work, but also all 
the proofs have passed under his critical eye. Should 
this work ever accomplish the mission for which the 
author sends it out into the world, its success will mainly 
be due to his broad and thoughtful scholarship. 

To Professor W.S. Tyler, D. D., of Amherst. College, 
to Professor E. Anagnos of Boston, and to all others 
who have honored this work with their favorable notice, 
I beg to return my thanks. Last, but not least, I must 
tender my thanks to a personal and esteemed friend, S. - 
Holman Esq., for the very kind encouragement I have 
received while this work was yet in embryo. 

With the valuable assistance of such a scholar as the 
Rey. M. CO. Stebbins, my task might well have been exe- 
cuted far better than it is. But such as it is, 1 commit it 
very humbly to the judgment of the public; but with a 


x PREFACE. 


comfortable degree of confidence that its deficiencies will 
be charitably regarded by those who are best qualified to 
appreciate the difficulties necessarily attendant upon the 
discussion of the topics herein treated. 


T. T. TIMAYENIS. 


SPRINGFIELD COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE, 
SPRINGFIELD, Mass., September 1, 1877. 


IIT. 


CONTENTS. 





PART I. 


PRONUNCIATION OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE . 


Tue ErasmMIAN SYSTEM 

LocaL PECULIARITIES 

Mistaken NorioNs CONCERNING THE Mop- 
ERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION 

NEGLECT OF THE MopERN GREEK PRONUN- 
CIATION . 

Prospective Status ΟΡ GREECE . 

MopErRN GREEK LITERATURE. 

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE OLp ATTIC AND 
THE MopERN GREEK 

ACCENT AND QUANTITY . 


THe ASPIRATE , a ᾿ ᾿ 5 i 


PART II. 


Tur ALPHABET : : 3 ; F 
SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS 


DiGRAPHS . ; Σ 


PAGE 


139 


143 
144 
153 


ΧΙ CONTENTS. 


IV. Sounps ΟΕ THE DiIPpHTHONGS : 5 : 155 
V. Tuer Consonants . ; . : 5 . 167 
VI. CoMmBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS . : : 192 


VII. Examptes or Moprern GREEK PRONUNCIA- 


TION : ; ἢ ; 3 - : 194 


APPENDIX. 


Ruies oF AccENTUATION : ; é i 3 201 


Pia Peds 





CHAPTER 1. 
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 


“Ἑλλὰς μέν ἐστι μία, πόλεις δὲ πλείονες * 

σὺ μὲν ἀττικίζεις, ἡνίκ᾽ ἂν φωνὴν λέγῃς 

αὑτοῦ tw’, οἱ δ᾽ Ἕλληνες ἑλληνίζομεν. 
(Ποσείδιππος 6 κωμικὸς παρὰ Δικαιάρχῳ, ἀποσπ. 26.) 
THE pronunciation of the Greek language that 
is prevalent in Greece, bids fair to find its way 
into the schools and universities of the Old 
World and the New. Scholars everywhere, after 
much discussion, are coming to the conclusion 
“‘that the pronunciation of the modern Greeks, 
even if it is not identical with the ancient, must 
have a closer resemblance to the old than that of 
the Western nations.” It is high time, therefore, 
that scholars should adopt in this country, and in 
fact wherever the Greek language is studied, the 
pronunciation prevalent in Greece, which, as we 
will endeavor to prove, must have a closer re- 
semblance to the old than any other pronuncia- 
tion now in use. Why it is that so little attention 


2 ON THE PRONUNCIATION 


is paid in this country to the way the modern 
Greeks pronounce their language we will notice 
hereafter. But it is worth while to consider how 
eager we are to acquire a correct pronunciation 
when we study a.foreign language, and how care- 
less in pronouncing ‘‘the language” in which the 
loftiest and deepest thoughts were expressed. 
Perhaps the idea prevails that after the fall of 
Greece, which dates from the war of the Pelo- 
ponnesus, ‘Greece not only saw her greatness 
fall, but her spoken language also pass into ob- 
livion.” How mistaken, indeed, he must be, who 
supposes that the traditional language of the 
Greeks is a thing of the past, is evident from 
what follows. It may be true, that after Greece 
had become a Roman province she saw, with 
liberty, the arts, sciences, and literature fall into 
decadence. It may be true that there were no 
more such statesmen and great captains as 
Themistocles, Miltiades, Leonidas, Pausanias, 
Aristides, and Cimon; no more great orators like 
Pericles, Isocrates, Demosthenes, and A‘schines ; 
no more poets like Sophocles, Euripides, and 
Pindar; no more historians like Herodotus, 
Phaby aiden, Xenophon, Ctesias, and Polybius; 
no more philosophers like Pythagoras, Bounties, 
Plato, and Aristotle; no more sculptors like 
Phidias and Praxiteles; no more painters like “ 
Apelles, and Zeuxis, and Parrhasius, yet the 


OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE. ee 


Greeks never lost their language. In spite of the 
invasions of the Goths, of the Bulgarians, of the 
Arabs, and of the Turks, the Greek language, I 
repeat, never ceased to be spoken by the descend- 
ants of the ancient Hellenes. Now, let not the 
reader do me the injustice to suppose that I am 
unduly influenced by patriotism in my state- 
ments. My object is to present facts, —to deal 
with facts, and to present them in their true light. 
If there are any defects in the pronunciation of 
the modern Greeks, I will not hesitate to point 
them out. | 

There is perhaps no nation in the history of the 
world which has suffered so many invasions, from 
so many different races; yet, far from yielding to 
the direful influences bearing upon her, she has 
succeeded in preserving many of the Virtues 
of her illustrious ancestors, together with the lan- 


guage, with so little change, —a change less than | 


that between the English of Chaucer and the | 


English of to-day. 


It is wonderful that the Greeks were able to — 


preserve their language under the many vicissi- 
tudes which the nation had to pass through, 
especially while under the Turkish yoke. It is 
perhaps this that causes many to disbelieve the 
fact that the Greek is as really a living language 
as it was in the days of Homer. ‘To bear in 
mind the various means the Turks adopted to 


‘ 


4 ON THE PRONUNCIATION 


kill, so to speak, the Greek language, —the cruelty 
and barbarity they exercised over the conquered 
people, — might perhaps prepare one to believe 
that ‘it was buried in a quiet grave and had given 
place to a degenerate scion, or had at best sunk 
into the dotage of a second childhood.” 

And yet, nothing is more true than the state- 
ment, that the Greek is as truly a living lan- 
guage as it was in the days of Homer. ‘To 
express my sentiments, I can do no better than to 
use the words of an English writer, who says on 
this subject, ‘That it is a strange and unparal- 
leled fact that one of the oldest known languages 
in the world, a language in which the loftiest and 
deepest thoughts of the greatest poets, the wisest 
thinkers, the noblest, holiest, and best of teachers, 
have, directly or indirectly, found their utterance 
in the far-off ages of a hoar antiquity, should at 
this day be the living speech of millions through- 
out the East of Buropé, and various parts of Asia 
Minor and Africa; that it should have survived 
the fall of empires, and risen again and again 
from the ruins of beleaguered cities, deluged, but 
never drowned, by floods of invading barbarians, 
Romans, Celts, Slaves, Goths and Vandals, 
Avars, Huns, Franks, and Turks; often the lan- 
guage of the vanquished, yet never of the dead; 
with features seared by years and service, yet 
still essentially the samé,—instinct with the fire 


OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE. ee 


of life, and beautiful with the memory of the 
past.” 

Professor A. N. Arnold says, ‘‘ The language 
of Greece has undergone no revolution since the 
time of the Attic historians, philosophers, orators, 
and poets. ‘Through all the successive invasions 
and conquests of the country, by the Romans, 
the Goths, the Huns, the Sclavonians, the Cru- 
saders, the Venetians, and the Turks, the basis 
of the population and the substance of the lan- 
guage have survived unchanged. There has 
never been a period when there were not some 
who wrote Greek with a fair approach to Attic 
δε sisi ὦ Since the time of Homer, the 
Greek has never been a dead language. Western 
Europe by that libel only proclaimed her own 
ignorance and shame. If there has been a time 
when even Athenians spoke a wretched patois, 
there were even at that time educated men and 
women in Constantinople who spoke and wrote 
the language in a style which would have been 
quite intelligible, not only to Plutarch and Pau- 
sanias, but also to Pericles and Plato.” 


ζ Py WARY 


| 
: . ΚΥΡΆ ἷ \ \ 
| ἃ. Δεν: Fier ‘a 


| UNIVERSILY OF | 


CHAPTER II. 


THE ERASMIAN SYSTEM. 


Ar the first appearance of the Turkish suprem- 
acy in Greece, hundreds of families fled to the 
West of Europe, bearing with them that very 
system of pronunciation which not only the 
Greeks still use, but which learned Europe uni- 
versally allowed until the time of Erasmus. 

The Erasmian system of Greek pronunciation 
was proposed about the beginning of the sixteenth 
century. Hume informs us that the new system 
was vigorously opposed; it also divided the 
Grecians themselves (at Oxford) into parties. The 
penalties inflicted for adopting the new pronun- 
ciation were no less than whipping, degradation, 
and expulsion; and the Bishop declared. that, 
rather than permit the new pronunciation of the 
Greek, it were better that the language itself were 
totally banished the universities. (History of 
England, Ch. XXXIIT., A. D. 1547.) 

At present many seem to be satisfied that it is 
best for every one to pronounce Greek after the 
analogy of his own vernacular tongue. This 


THE ERASMIAN SYSTEM. a 


of course gives rise to as many modes of reading 
Greek as there are modern languages in Europe. 
And it is worthy of notice that “πὸ system of 
Greek pronunciation conflicts oftener with the 
direct testimony of the ancient grammarians, as 
well as with the established principles of the 
Greek language, than that which takes the Eng- 
lish for its basis.” Professor Sophocles attributes 
it to the fact that in no other European language 
is the same letter or combination of letters oftener 
employed to denote more than one sound or no 
sound at all. However, some maintain that an 
Englishman, for instance, learns Greek more 
easily by attempting to pronounce it as if it were’ 
English. This cannot be true, for “ English 
orthoepy is confessedly complicated and discour-, 
aging, even when it confines itself to its own 
language.” 

Now, the general uniformity of modern Greek 
pronunciation, wherever the language is spoken, 
is very strong argument for its antiquity, and 
against its being a corruption resulting from con- 
tact with other languages. In the Spanish dia- 
lect we clearly trace the influence of Arabic, in 
Italian of Teutonic, in French of Celtic sounds; 
in Greek, on the other hand, though the countries 
where it is spoken are as widely distant and the 
foreign influences to which it has been subject as 
diverse, we find generally the same traditional 


8 THE ERASMIAN SYSTEM. 


pronunciation among learned and unlearned alike. 
In Egypt, in Asia Minor, on the shores of’ the 
Euxine, in Constantinople, in Athens, in Crete, in » 
the Aigean, the pronunciation presents the great- 
est harmony in respect to those letters on which 
_ the whole controversy turns. 


CHAPTER IIL. 


LOCAL PECULIARITIES. 


Tue same local peculiarities which existed in 
the different sections of ancient Greece are preva- 
lent in those sections to-day. The Spartan of to- 
day, like the Spartan of old, uses the same short, 
cutting, laconic expressions. He is inclined to an 
active life of warfare, differing in this respect 
from the modern Athenian, who possesses the 
same elegance in his bearing and expression as 
the Athenian of old. It may not be out of place 
to remark that many of the superstitious notions 
of the ancients are still prevalent, especially 
among the common people of Asia Minor. For 
instance, according to Herodotus, when Xerxes 
was marching to invade Greece. . . ... εὗρε. πλα- 
τάνιστον τὴν κάλλεος εἵνεκα δωρησάμενος κόσμῳ 
χρυσέῳ καὶ μελεδωνῷ ἀθανάτῳ ἀνδρὶ ἐπιτρέψας... .. 
Now, it is curious to notice that this custom 
of hanging trinkets to “Oriental planes” (plata- 
ni) is still prevalent in Asia Minor. The people 
hang trinkets to such of the plane-trees as happen 
to strike their fancy. It is a custom with the 


10 LOCAL PECULIARITIES. 


people of that country, for which I doubt whether 
they themselves can account. It is simply a cus- 
tom handed down from generation to generation, — 
and from which neither time nor any other in- 
fluence has been able to dissuade them. 

Again, the same strong hold religion had upon 
the great mass of the people is still prevalent, 
especially in some of the islands of the Archi- 
pelago, such as Icaria, Rhodes, and the interior 
of Asia Minor. Mr. Alexander 8. Murray in his 
manual of mythology enumerates many of the 
superstitious notions of the ancient Greeks, and, 
in fact, it is astonishing to consider that neither 
time nor Christianity itself could dissuade the 
people from many of those religious notions. 
Now, it is a well-known fact, that it was in the 
firm belief of his interests being the special care 
of a deity, that the husbandman sowed his seed 
and watched the vicissitudes of its growth; that 
the sailor and trader intrusted life and property 
to the capricious sea. ‘To-day, the husbandman 
of Asia Minor sows his seed under the firm belief 
that St. George or St. James will watch over his 
interests and will bring to him an abundant har- 
vest. The sailor and the trader intrust life and 
property to St. Nicolas, who, by the way, is the 
patron of all seafaring people. In the city 
of Smyrna, in a parish called “Ἄνω Mayahas,”— 
“the upper parish,” — there is a sort of a cavern 


LOCAL PECULIARITIES. 11 


called “ἡ Κρυφὴ Παναγιά," --- the secret virgin. 
This ‘secret virgin” is considered the patron 
of mechanics, and her place is daily thronged by 
all classes of workingmen, who, in offering a part 
of their scanty earnings to her, earnestly pray 
that she may not cease to exercise her influence 
over their respective callings. Now, it is a fact, 
that in ancient times the mechanic traced the 
skill and handicraft, which grew unconsciously: 
upon him by the practice, to the direct influence 
of a God. “I knew of a poet in Asia Minor, by 
the name of George Kanares (Γεώργιος Κανάρης) 
who, a few years ago, wrote an interesting poem 
and dedicated it to his patron saint, St. Eustha- 
thios!' In Mr. Murray’s mythology, we notice 
that artists ascribed the mysterious evolution 
of their ideas, and poets the inspiration of their 
song, to ‘a supreme cause.” - Everywhere in 
nature was felt the presence of august, invisible 
beings, — in the sky, with its luminaries and 
clouds; on the sea, with its fickle, changeful 
movements; on the earth, with its lofty peaks, its 
plains and rivers. To-day, old women in the 
Kast pretend to cure all sorts of diseases during 
_ full moon, and by the influence of certain invisible 
beings who inhabit certain stars. Old women 
_ pretend to cure pimples on the face by rubbing 
_ mud on it during full moon. Again, the deities 
of the ancients were represented as immortal, 
and, being immortal, they were next, as a con- 


12 LOCAL PECULIARITIES. 


sequence, supposed to be omnipotent and omnis- 
cient. Their physical strength was extraordinary, 
the earth shaking sometimes under their tread: 
St. George to-day is represented as riding on a 
fiery steed, with a spear in his hand with which 
he killed a fiery dragon lying at the feet of his 
horse. Mythology teaches us that there were 
tales of personal visits and adventures of the Gods 
among men, taking part in battles and appearing 
‘in dreams. Now, the greater part of those pecul- 

jar-looking barracks — the so-called churches— 
that are seen nestled on top of hills and scattered 
hither and thither, in the interior of Asia Minor, 
were erected because some devout Christian de- 
clared that such a saint appeared to him ordering 
the erection of achurch to his memory! In pray- 
ing it was a custom of the ancients to lift their 
hands and turn the face towards the east. This is 
still the practice of the ignorant classes in Asia Mi- 
nor. Here is a specimen of what seems to have 
been the usual form of praying among the ancient 
Greeks: ‘‘ Zeus, our Lord, give unto us whatever 
is good, whether we ask it of thee or not; what- 
ever is evil keep far from us, even if we ask it of 
thee.” The peasant in the East to-day, in pray- 
ing, will lift his hands and turn his face towards 
the east, and will say in a low tone, as appears to 
have been the ancient custom, ‘‘My God, our 
Lord, I pray to thee, give us whatever is good, and 
keep far from us whatever is evil, even if we ask 


a 


LOCAL PECULIARITIES. 13 


it of thee.” This is a very common form of 
prayer, which was handed down, as it seems, from 
generation to generation. Pythagoras, the phi- 
losopher, taught his followers to pray with a loud 
voice; but loud prayers do not appear to have. 
been customary. 

Sneezing was regarded as something divine; 
and Xenophon informs us, that, on one occasion, 
a soldier happening to sneeze, all those present, 
with one accord, bowed to the God. “Τοῦτο δὲ λέ- 
γοντος αὐτοῦ πτάρνυταί τις" ἀκούσαντες δ᾽ οἱ στρα- 
τιῶται πάντες μιᾷ ὁρμῇ προσεκύνησαν τὸν θεὸν.").... 
To-day, if any one happens to sneeze after nine 
o’clock in the evening, the peasants of Asia Minor 
are wont to pour wine on the ground. Finally, 
we must not forget to mention, as a proof of the 
wide-spread religious feeling of the ancient 
Greeks, the national festivals or games, such as 
the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian, 
maintained in honor of certain Gods. To-day, 
likewise, the peasant of the East, in celebrating 
the feast of his patron saint, suspends all business 
and celebrates the day with festivals and dancing, 
cordial invitations being extended to both friends 
and foes,—a custom which was in existence . 
among the ancient Greeks, because it is well 
known that they used to suspend whatever war 
might be going on between separate states, and to 
permit visitors to pass unmolested, even through 
hostile territories. 


14 LOCAL PECULIARITIES. 


This tendency to polytheism is certainly a rem- 
nant of the religion of the ancient Greeks. Al- 
though Christianity has shed its light in Asia 
Minor and on the islands of the Archipelago, the 
people are addicted to those superstitious notions, 
and they will never be abandoned so long as the 
barbarous Turk holds sway over those countries. 
In the Kingdom of Greece the people are enlight- 
ened, and free from most of the superstitious no- 
tions of their brethren in the East. 

Let us not, however, forget that the inhabitants 
of Asia Minor are praiseworthy in retaining the 
language of their illustrious ancestors. I have 
alluded to the ‘local peculiarities ” which are still 
prevalent, in order to show that the Greeks are 
a remarkably conservative race. Although the 
Turks prohibited, under penalty of death, the 
Greek language to be spoken or taught anywhere 
in Greece Proper or in Asia Minor; although a 
war of extermination was carried on by them, not 
only against the people, but against the renowned 
monuments of antiquity; although all teachers, 
when pointed out, were instantly murdered, and 
the silence which reigned in that country — once 
the home of the hero and the statesman —re- 
sembled the silence of an old cemetery, the 
Greeks succeeded in keeping up their schools, 
and thus kept their language, in spite of their 
oppressors. 


CHAPTER IV. 


MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING THE MODERN 
GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 


OnE cause that makes scholars so averse to the 
adoption of the modern Greek pronunciation is 
the belief that the Greeks must have lost their 


. language, owing mainly to the invasions of so 


many barbarous tribes, to which Greece for cen- 
turies submitted, until the year 1821, when the 
War of Independence was proclaimed, which 
terminated in throwing off the Turkish yoke. 
But how erroneous this idea! An English writer 
says ‘‘ that it seems hardly too much to say that 
our conduct in this regard shows a kind of liter- 
ary ingratitude, which ought to shock our moral 
sense. Greece has, in various ages, preserved to 
us the succession of culture, when the rest of the 
earth was overrun with savages. For us it has 
held the citadel of civilization against the barba- 
rism of the world, and now the danger is over we 
have forgotten our benefactor, and trouble our- 
selves little how it fares with him.” The case 
reminds us of the words of the Preacher: ‘There 
was a little city, and few men within it; and there 


16 MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING THE 


came a great king against it, and besieged it, and 
built great bulwarks against it. Now there was 
found in it a poor wise man, and he by his wis- 
dom delivered the ays yet no man remembered 
that same poor man.’ 

Why forget that during εἰ time when Turkey 
held control over Cate, and when Greece 
seemed dead to the rest of the world; when the 
Turks, I repeat, had prohibited, under penalty 
of death, the Greek language to be spoken any- 
where within their domain, often some remote 
church among the defiles of the mountains, and 
far from the Turks, used to serve as a school, 
where the Greek language was taught and 
spoken? Why forget that the Greeks had sub- 
terranean schools in Constantinople, the very 
capital of Turkey, where, under learned Greek 
professors, the Greek language was by night 
taught to thousands of Greeks? Now, in those 
supernatural efforts, so to speak, on the part of the 
Greeks, lies the whole mystery of their success 
in preserving their. language. No! Not for a 
moment has the Greek forgot who were his ances- 
tors; not for a moment has he thought of giving 
up his language. ‘Time, and the invasions of bar- 
barians, had no effect whatever to change or 
demoralize either the people or the language. 
Idiomatic expressions, peculiarities of language, 
so common among the ancient Greek authors, are 





MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 17 


to be heard, even to-day, in the different sections 
of Greece. Foreign words are rigorously ex- 
cluded; and even in the public press the names 
of foreign newspapers, sometimes also of foreign 
places, are subjected to translation. Thus, the 
Times is- known as ὁ Χρόνος, the New York 
Herald, as ὁ Κήρυξ τῆς Νέας “Topkns, etc.; and 
whereas it would sound ridiculous to eall ‘“ Le 
palais des Tuileries” the palace of the Tileworks, 
it is actually translated by the ““᾿Ανάκτορα τῶν 
Κεραμείων ” in modern Greek. 

It may be well here to state that it is from the 
ancient grammarians we learn the pronunciation 
of the Greek language. Moreover, a scholar 
affirms that Dionysius of Halicarnassus, by re- 
ferring the Greek alphabetical sounds to their 
proper organs, has, as it were, embalmed them 
for our use. So that, knowing these facts, we 
can assert that the modern Greek pronunciation 
has a closer resemblance to the ancient Greek 
than any other existing pronunciation. 

Again, this is evident from the clearness and 
distinctness with which the educated classes es- 
pecially pronounce. It is evident from the strik- 
ing similarity which exists in pronouncing Greek 
in all the countries where the modern Greek 
pronunciation is prevalent. In Greece, in Asia 
Minor, in Egypt, on the islands, one and the 
same pronunciation exists. It is again evident 


18 MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING THE 
&, | 
from the purity of style with which the papers 


are edited in Greece. It is evident from the fact 
that the Greek historians, such as Xenophon and . 
Herodotus, are the delight of every Greek who 
reads them as understandingly as the average 
American does the history of his own country. 
Take the last paragraph of the Olympian Oration, 
delivered by Professor Philippos Ioannou, on the 
second anniversary of the modern Olympiads, 
A. D., 1870. The subject of the oration is, ‘The 
Intellectual Progress of the Greek Nation from 
the War of Independence to the Present Time.” 
In the closing paragraph Professor Arnold states : 
‘Embracing about a page and a half of closely 
-printed octavo, there are about fifty verbs, every 
one of which is found in Liddell and Scott’s 
ancient Greek lexicon. .... Of seventy-five or 
eighty nouns, all but one are found in the above- | 
named lexicon, and this one is simply a modifica- 
tion of a well known root, familiar to Greek 
scholars, and represented by several cognate 
words (παγιωτής). . . .. Of about fifty adjectives, 
all but one are found in the lexicon, and of this 
one the corresponding adverb is found. Indeed, 
the adjective itself is found in Pickering’s lexicon. 
All the nouns and adjectives, without the slightest 
exception, are declined as in the ancient gram- 
mars. Among eight or ten different pronouns, 
personal, relative, demonstrative, and compound, 


MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. ἐφ 


occurring in all about twenty-four times, there is 
only one instance of departure from ancient 
usage. Of ten adverbs, the only one not be- 
longing to the ancient language is the negative δὲν 
(contraction for οὐδὲν) instead of od or οὐκ. This 
modern form is used twice, and the ancient form, 
οὐχί, also occurs twice. So slight is the difference 
between the Greek language of B. C. 400 and 
that of A. D. 1870.” Now, is this not a proof 
that the language must be essentially the same ? 
And does not identity of language necessarily 
imply identity of sound? How is it that the 
people of Athens recently filled the ancient 
theatre of Bacchus to overflowing, to witness the 
representation of Antigone in ancient Greek ? 
How is it that the Athenian heart, ever finely 
susceptible to the sentiments of humanity, gave 
evidence by many a tear that the people who 
witnessed it were imbued with the spirit of the 
tragedy, and felt in their very hearts the pathos 
of the piece? ‘T’o what do you attribute all this? 
To what can it be attributed but to the fact that 
the ‘ancient Greek” is to-day essentially the 
living language of the modern Greeks? What 
more need be said in favor of adopting the modern 
Greek pronunciation, which alone is the true pro- 
nunciation of the Greek language ? 

The Rey. John Groves, a distinguished Greek 


scholar, asserts that ‘‘ We have, after an examina- 


20 MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING THE 


tion made with no little labor, formed a decided 
opinion that the pronunciation of the Greeks has 
undergone very little change for ‘Two THOUSAND 
YEARS. The written language itself has been 
preserved in greater purity, during an equal ex- 
tent of years, than any of the European lan- 
guages of the same stock.” He is inclined to 
believe, with an intelligent traveller in Greece, 
that the ‘contemporary of William of Malmes- 
bury or of Froissart would find more difficulty in 
conversing with his modern countrymen than any 
Athenian of the purer ages with his.” 

Bishop Horsley remarks that it may reasonably 
be supposed that the pronunciation of the Greek 
language, even in the time of Eustathius, which 
flourished in the beginning of the thirteenth cen- 
tury, much more resembled the pronunciation 
of the best ages than anything we can substitute 
for it now; certainly much more than our BAR- 
BAROUS recitation of Greek, CORRUPTED by our 
bad way of sounding it. To the same effect is 
the opinion of a well-known English author, who 
has bestowed as much attention upon the subject 
of pronunciation generally as ‘any writer of our 
age.” ‘There seems, says Mr. Midford, no reason- 
able ground for doubting that the present polite 
pronunciation of Constantinople approaches nearer 
to the speech of the ancient Greeks than that 
of any other moderns, with any advantage the 





MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 21 


study can give, and that in order to obtain the 
nearest possible approximation to the ancient 
Greek pronunciation we can do no other way so 
well as to adopt the Constantinopolitan. 

Furthermore, the University of Cambridge in 
England has candidly acknowledged that the 
English are almost singular in the erroneous and 
vitiated pronunciation of the Greek language. 
And, in a well-known literary journal,a writer 
has remarked, in strong language: ‘It is, I be- 
lieve, an undisputed fact, that our pronunciation 
of Greek bears not the slightest resemblance to 
that of the ancients... .. A remedy should be 
found. .... Great attention ought to be paid to 
the pronunciation of the modern Greeks, .... . 
which must obviously approximate more to the 
standard of the ancients than the method preva- 
lent in England and elsewhere.” 

Again, it is an undisputed fact, that by study- 
ing the Greek as a living language, and by 
adopting the modern Greek pronunciation, many 
idioms of modern Greek may be employed in 
a manner hitherto unlooked for, in the criticism 
of documents of doubtful age, as, for example, the 
Gospel of St. John, — with a view of determining 
the period at which they were written. 

Professor Geldart asserts that the relation be- 
tween accent and quantity in poetry can never be 
fully. nor fairly judged by any one who is not 


22 MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 


familiar with the sound of Greek read accentually, 
a familiarity which can hardly be acquired apart 
from a practical acquaintance with Greek as a | 
living, spoken language. 

Furthermore, “the pronunciation of Greek, and 
the interchange of certain letters within the limits 
of the Greek language, is a sealed mystery to 
those who are ignorant of the sounds which the 
Greeks of the present day give to the letters of 
their alphabet and their several combinations.” 

Finally, as exactly the same letters appear to 
be interchangeable in ancient and modern Greek, 
we hold it to be in itself the strongest proof of 
the general identity of modern and ancient Greek 
pronunciation. But we will notice this point 
hereafter. We will now proceed to discuss the 
subject concerning the neglect of the modern 
Greek pronunciation. 





CHAPTER Υ. 


NEGLECT OF THE MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 


Arter the foregoing considerations, the reader 
may be curious to know why scholars are so loath 
to adopt the pronunciation prevalent in Greece. 
For, in fact, how can the Western nations. ever 
suppose that their pronunciation is correct, when 
they pronounce the Greek, which is the living 
language of millions of people, according to the 
sound of their respective languages? Is this not 
a regrettable confusion? Now, would it not be 
better to have for the Greek one uniform pronun- 
ciation, such as we have for every other spoken 
language ? 

The reasons for this neglect are many and 
various. With learned men of the old school it 
is due, very probably, “to a certain antiquarian 
bent of mind, amounting to a positive prejudice 
against everything modern.” Professor Geldart 
is certainly right, when he says, that with such 
scholars the fact that a language is dead, is, of 
itself, the best reason for studying it, — forgetting 
that “a living dog is better than a dead lion.” 


24 MODERN GREEK PRONUN CIATION. 


To such, the discovery that the Greek is as really 
a living language as it was in the days of Homer, 
can hardly be expected to prove welcome. The 
manner of life which such persons lead is not 
inaptly expressed in the words of Southey :— 


“ My days among the dead are passed. 
Around me I behold, 
Where’er these casual eyes are cast, 
The mighty minds of old: 
My never-failing friends are they, 
With whom I converse night and day.” 


- 


The remaining reasons for this neglect, Professor 
Geldart attributes to ‘the political ‘insignificance 
of the nation; the obscurity of its literature; the 
small practical use of the language; and _ last, 
but perhaps not the least, the prevalence of the - 
Erasmian system of pronunciation.” 





“CHAPTER VL 


PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 


“(Eprpus. Where are we now, my dear Antigone ? 
Knowest thou the place ? 
ANTIGONE. Far as my eyes can reach I see a city 
With lofty turrets crowned ; and if I err not, 
This place is sacred ; by the laurel shade, 
Olive and vine thick planted, and the songs 
Of nightingale sweet warbling through the year.” 


Tue political insignificance of Greece cannot be 
of very long duration. A people which has made 
such rapid strides in education as the Greek nation, 
since its independence was established, must ‘be 
worth something, after all.” Professor Felton 
said, in reference to the University of Athens, 
“That many of its professors would do honor to 
any university of Europe”; and it is not saying 
too much when I say that the University of 
Athens is acknowledged to-day as one of the very 
best universities of Europe. General education 
is widely spread in Greece, and no nation sur- 
passes the modern Greeks “in general informa- 
tion.” But in order that the reader may fully 
‘understand the astonishing progress the Greeks 


26 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 


have made in the sciences, arts, and literature, 
that is to say, in civilization, since 1832, the year 
when Greece was declared an independent king- 
dom, it is necessary that I preface my remarks 
by a brief description of the country before the 
occurrence of that memorable event. 


“ Before I farther in the tale do pass, 
It seemeth me accordant unto reason 
To tell you all, the condition 
Of each of them, so as it seemeth me, 
And who they were, and of what degree, 
And eke in what array they all were in.” 


In 1821.a general war against the Turks was 
declared, and, after a war of seven years —a most 
cruel and atrocious war — the Greeks succeeded in 
obtaining their liberty. Education during those 
years, and previous to 1821, was indeed in a sad 
condition. The Turks would permit the Greeks 
to have churches, but they would not permit them 
to have any “regular schools.” The Greeks 
accordingly turned many of their churches into 
school-houses, and here is a faithful description 
of one of those “schools” by a Greek who 
attended one of them: “The rich were wont to 


attend the subterranean schools established in. 


Constantinople, Smyrna, and other cities. These 
schools were generally taught by able and 
scholarly men, who had studied in Germany. 
The poor attended the schools held in the church. 


᾽ 


ν. 








PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. rat 


The school was kept at the entrance of the church, 
and our teacher was the priest, a man of not 
extensive acquirements. We went at about eight 
o’clock in the morning, and were ranged in two 
lines in the porch, one on each side of the door. 
The children sat on sheepskins spread on the 
floor with the wool up, the floor being swept very 
clean. Sometimes we were ranged round against 
the wall, without distinction of age or class, 
brothers being generally placed together, and the 
girls in another group. The exercises began at 
eight o’clock, by all standing, while a prayer was 
snpootiok by the teacher. ‘Then we all said the 
Creed. The priest then repeated the psalm be- 
ginning ‘ Kléeson me o Theos,’ which is much 
used by us in ancient Greek, of which I un- 
derstood the meaning when a little boy. It 
needed not a translation. When this was done, 
the boys began to read, one at a time going with 
his book to the master, who corrected any errors. 
There were two classes,—one in an alphabet 
book, called ‘phillada’ (leaves); the other in 
the Psalter, or the ‘ Apostles.’ The ‘ Apostles’ 
contained the Acts and all the Epistles. Both 
the Psalter and the ‘ Apostles’ were in ancient 
Greek. Each scholar had a few lines to read, 
which he studied as a lesson at his seat. We 
never studied mathematics, as we did afterwards, 
in the school of Oekonomos in Smyrna. ‘This 


28 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 


school of Oekonomos was what I may term a 
‘private school.’ A few such schools were to be 
found in Asia Minor at that time. But they were » 
generally placed under the protection of some 
European power, and thus they were left un- 
molested. To this day, the Evangelical College 
in Smyrna, though a Greek institution, endowed 
by a Greek, is under the protection of England. 
After dinner we learned to write. ‘Three or four 
small sheets of paper sewed together, without a 
cover, served for each of the older boys, who 
used to write with large crow-quills. These quills 
were very durable. The shepherds supplied us 
from the birds they killed. The pens were 
mended by the master. We sat on sheepskins, 
as I mentioned, spread on the floor, and placed 
the paper on our knees with our inkstands beside 
us. The master gave a copy of the alphabet 
alone to each learner, and afterwards a line or 
more, written always in a small hand. All the 
exercise of the afternoon, for two or three hours, 
was in writing. Before the close of school-hours, 
the writing was shown to the master, who pun- 
ished the negligent by feruling their hands. 
Great offences were punished by bastinado on the 
feet. This was performed after the Turkish man- 
ner, by lifting the feet up. In ours and the neigh- 
boring villages of poor Greeks, the boys carried 
every week ten paras (two and a half cents), or 





PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. ἐμὴν 
a 3 Ai fy 


bread, olives, eggs, cheese, wine, to feed the master 
This was the regular price.- There was no dan der 
of being starved. Hach was informed whether ιό 
carry a loaf of bread or a piece of cheese this 
week, which was generally different from the last 
and the next week. At the rates established then, 
I suppose the master received about the value 
of four dollars per month for teaching thirty 
boys. There was no such thing as boarding, so 
that the expense of living cannot be estimated as 
in the United States; but everything was cheap. 
Beef was two and a half cents a pound; veal or 
lamb, four cents; goat’s flesh, two cents. Flour 
was four cents a pound.” | 

Such was the state of education in those years 
of bitter slavery. The monasteries, especially 
those on Mount Olympus, afforded instruction to 
those who wished to learn, but generally speak- 
ing it was “religious instruction,” and those at- 
tending, for the most part, were preparing for 
the ministry. Shortly after the release from the 
Turkish yoke, the courts of England, France, 
and Russia, being desirous to give to Greece a 
fresh proof of their friendly (?) disposition, took 
upon themselves the responsibility of directing 
the internal affairs of the kingdom, and of framing 
a constitution for the nation. The Greeks were 
opposed to the friendly wishes of the Powers; 
they were opposed to the form of government 


30 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 


the Powers wished to establish over them; they 
were unwilling to have foreigners direct the 
destinies of their nation; so that, after the lapse 
of ten years (since 1832), ‘The Minerva,” a 
Greek paper then published in Athens, asserted 
in strong language, “After the lapse of more 
than ten years, and an expenditure of thirty — 
millions of dollars, the interests of the country 
are so completely neglected, that to this moment 
(1842), Greece is left with the greatest part of her 
domain uncultivated; with her forts filled with 
mud; with many of her rich plains and valleys 
in a state of progressive desolation; with some 
few schools and seminaries of learning, supported 
principally by private contribution, and denied 
the benefit of a vigilant superintendence; with 
churches more fit for stables than for temples 
of religion; with suppressed monasteries ; with a 
clergy in rags; with a navy inferior to the one in 
the days of Capodistria; with a population small 
enough, and yet diminishing by constant emi- 
gration to Turkey; with many and rich uniforms, 
but without a manufacturing establishment; with 
plenty of commercial treaties, but with a com- 
merce poorer and more insignificant than ever; 
with a bank which promises wonders, but with no 
resources and public credit.” 

The above picture of Greece is by no means 
an exaggeration of the actual state of things at 





PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 31 


the time. The budget for 1843 showed a revenue 


of 15,669,795 drachmas, against an expenditure 
of 18,666,582 drachmas, which it was feared 
would be increased to more than 6,000,000 drach- , 
mas, inasmuch as it was thought that the govern- 
ment would hardly realize more than 12,000,000 
drachmas from the revenue of the realm. The 


causes of these misfortunes must be attributed 


to the fact that the Powers were determined to 
establish in Greece an ‘absolute monarchy,” 
and the Greeks, on the other hand, wished to 
have a constitutional government. Others laid 
the blame upon the Bavarians, upon those ‘‘who” 
—to use the language of ‘The Minerva” — 
‘disbanded the veterans of Greece, and gave 
the bread of her liberators to worthless merce- 
naries, who led to the slaughter-house the heroes 
of her revolution, and exiled in foreign missions 
the best of her statesmen; who shackled the 
press, burdened the people with taxes, wasted the 
loan and the revenue, gave the national lands to 
strangers, weakened the interests of her protect- 
ors, dampened the sympathies of her friends, 
disregarded the Protocols, despised the advice 
of kings, persecuted the constitution, and intro- 
duced into the country that system of govern- 
ment which must be stigmatized as ‘absolute 
and despotic.’” 

Others maintain, and perhaps with justice, that 


32 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 


the real causes are to be sought in the memorable 
treaty of the 7th of May, 1832, between the 
Minister of Bavaria on one side and the Pleni- 
potentiaries of England, France, and Russia on 
the other. By virtue of this memorable state 
paper, the sovereignty of Greece was conferred 
upon King Otho, and it was further agreed, be- 
tween the contracting. parties, that his Majesty, 
being then a minor, should proceed to his king- 
dom, under the tutelage of THREE Regents, not 
one of whom was to be a Greek, who, besides a 
a loan of sixty millions of frances, were to have a 
mercenary army of four thousand men! 

The history of the last fifty years, a Greek 
asserts, has recorded many wrongs, many acts of 
oppression and injustice; but neither the history 
of the present, nor the annals of ancient and 
modern times, can afford us a more terrible ex- 
ample of national vassalage than that which we 
see in the case of Greece, and which portrays in 
such vivid colors the beauties of an exotic policy, 
which Mr. Macaulay has justly characterized as 
the worst species of slavery. Mr. Perdicaris 
remarks that the sacrifices of Greece, the full 
hecatombs which she laid on the altar of liberty, 
the deep sympathy which her suffering and heroic 
courage created in the minds of the civilized 
communities of the world, are still fresh in our 
memory, and we can hardly dissipate our blush, 


PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE.’ 99 


or smother our indignation, when, with such 
glorious antecedents, we find such wretched con- 
sequences; when in the place of that substantial 
good which animated the heroes of Greece, and 
which was anticipated by her people and her 
friends, we have a government which requires 
from two to three millions of dollars for its sup- 
port, but which, at the same time, is swayed to 
and fro by some one of the three potent and 
irresponsible Plenipotentiaries of England, France, 
and Russia! Is there anything more humiliating 
or more degrading than this ? 

But this state of things could not go on much 
longer. The Greeks resolutely took the matter 
into. their own hands, and by one master-stroke 
they saved their country from its perilous and 
degraded condition. This they accomplished by 
that memorable revolution of September 3, 1843. 
It accomplished a great deal of good, without 
giving rise to evil consequences. ‘That great 
popular movement of a single day ended, in the 
words of a Greek historian, in the acquisition of a 
social compact, which is destined to protect, for 
ages to come, the prerogatives of the throne and 
the rights of the nation. 

The Greeks, having established a form of 
government such as they wished, showed them- 
selves capable of governing themselves. They 
commenced to rebuild their fallen city and to 


34 “PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 


preserve the renowned monuments of antiquity, 
which suffered not so much from the conqueror 
as they did from the ruthless hand of the anti- | 
quarian. 

It was the antiquarian, and not the conqueror, 
who ruined the temples of antiquity and de- 
spoiled the city of Athens of its treasures. We 
can only feel, says the indignant Byron, or im- 
agine, the regret with which ruins of cities, once 
the capitals of empires, are beheld; the reflections 
suggested by such objects are too trite to require 
recapitulation. But never did the littleness of 
man, and the vanity of his very best virtues, 
of patriotism to watch and valor to-defend his 
country, appear more conspicuous than in the 
record of what Athehs was and the certainty of 
what she now is. This theatre of contentions 
between mighty factions, of the struggles of 
orators, the exaltation and deposition of tyrants, 
and triumphs and punishment of generals, is now 
become a scene of petty intrigues and perpetual 
disturbance between the bickering agents of cer- 
tain British nobility and gentry; the wild foxes, 
the owls. and serpents, in the ruins of Babylon 
were scarcely less degrading than such inhabi- 
tants. The Turks have the plea of conquest for 
their tyranny, and the Greeks have only suffered 
the fortunes of war incident to the bravest. But 
how are the mighty fallen, when two painters 


PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 95 


contest the privilege of plundering the Parthenon, 
and triumph in turn aecording to the tenor of 
each succeeding firman! Sylla could but punish, 
Philip subdue, and Xerxes burn Athens, but it 
remained for the petty antiquarian and his des- 
picable agents to render her as contemptible as 
himself and his pursuits. 

However, let us not forget that neither the 
conqueror, nor the antiquarian, nor time, the de- 
stroyer of all things, has succeeded in effacing 
the wonders of art; the principal monuments 
of the city, and the Acropolis with many of its 
monuments, were spared, and Athens, ‘ even 
when under the government of a worthless slave, 
continued to be the favorite of all those who had 
an eye for art or for nature.” 


“ But lo! from high Hymettus to the plain 
The Queen of Night asserts her silent reign. 
No murky vapor, herald of the storm, 
Hides her fair face or gilds her glowing form. 
With cornice glimmering in the moonbeam’s play, 
When the white column greets her grateful ray, 
And bright around with quivering beams beset, 
Her emblem sparkles o’er the minaret; 
The groves of olive scattered dark and wide, 
Where meek Cephisus sheds his scanty tide, 
The cypress saddening by the sacred mosque, 
The glimmering turret of the gay kiosk, 
And sad and sombre mid the holy calm, 
Near Theseus’ fane, yon solitary palm, 
All tinged with varied hues, arrests the eye, 
And dull were his heart that passed them heedless by.” 


+ 


36 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 


For the preservation of the “ antiquities,” a 
society was formed under the name of the 
‘‘ Archeeological Society of Athens.” The mem- 
bers went to work with willing hearts and hands, 
so that they succeeded in rendering the “National 
Museum” the most interesting and perhaps the 
richest museum of the world. 

Ever lovely, ever dear, 

How may I salute thine ear! 

O what size of words may tell 

Half the charms that in thee dwell! 
In thy sight are joy and pleasure 
Without stint and without measure. 


In thy breath is all that flings 
Sense and thought of choicest things. 


Now, the progress Greece has made since her 
independence is evident from what follows :— 
Greece in 1834 had a population of 650,000 
inhabitants. In 1870 she had 1,238,000 inhabit- 
ants, — that is to say, her population was doubled 
in thirty-six years, — increasing more rapidly 
than in Great Britain, and much faster than in 
any other country of Europe. Greece, together 
with the Ionian islands, has to-day a population 
of one million and a half. 

In 1830 there were in Greece 110 schools, and 
the number of scholars amounted to 9,249. In 
1860, there were in Greece 752 schools, with 
52,860 scholars. In 1837 there were in the 


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PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 37 


University of Athens 52 scholars; in 1866 there 
were 1182. In regard to the commercial and 
maritime interests of the country, suffice it to say, 
that in 1871 Greece had 35,000 sailors; three 
times as many as Great Britain in proportion 
to her population. Her commerce with England 
in 1861 amounted to 923,000 English pounds; 
in 1871 it reached the sum of 2,332,000 pounds. 
Education is free. From the village school to 
the “great University” of Athens, education is 
free. Edmond About, in his work, ‘‘Contem- 
porary Greece,” speaks in the following terms 
concerning the Greek students: ‘I have seen 
in Greece all kinds of students, but I never saw 
the student who would not study.” Rev. Joseph 
Cook thus eloquently portrays the intellectual 
progress of the Greek nation : — 


“What has happened in Greece since she was liberated 
from Turkey ? 

“Forty years ago not a book could be bought at Athens. 
pie day one in eighteen of the whole population of Greece 
is in school. Fifty years of independence and the Hellenic 
spirit have doubled the population of Greece, increased her 
revenues five hundred per cent, extended telegraphic com- 
munication over the kingdom, enlarged the fleet from 440 to 
5,000 vessels, opened eight ports, founded eleven new cities, ἢ 
restored forty ruined towns, changed Athens from a hamlet 
of hovels to a city of 60,000 inhabitants, and planted there 
a royal palace, a legislative chamber, six type-foundries, forty - 
printing establishments, twenty newspapers, an astronomical 
observatory, and a uniy ersity with fifty professors and twelve 


38 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 


hundred students. King Otho’s German court, when he 
came from Nauplia to Athens in 1835, lived at first in a shed 
that kept out neither the rain nor the north wind. On Con- 
stitution Peace in Athens, in 1848, the Hellenic spirit, with- 
out violence, and by the display of force for but a few hours, 
substituted for personal power in Greece a constitutional 
government as free as that of England. George Finlay, the 
historian of the Greek Revolution, and who fought in it, 
affirms that, even before that event, degraded as the people 
were politically, a larger proportion could read and write 
than among any other Christian race in Europe. Undoubt- 
edly long bondage, acting on the native adroitness of the 
race, taught the Greeks disingenuousness. The old blood 
produced an Alcibiades as well as a Socrates, a Cleon as 
well as a Phocion; there was in it, as in American veins 
to-day, a tendency to social, commercial, and political sharp- 
dealing. But after fifty years of independence the Hellenic 
spirit devotes a larger percentage of public revenue to pur- 
poses of instruction than France, Italy, England, Germany, 
or even the United States. Modern Greece, fifty years ago 
a slave and beggar, to-day, by the confession of the most 
merciless statisticians, its enemies, stands at the head of the 
list of self-educated nations.” 

“«The Deity has changed in nothing these cities; but I 
am not surprised thereby; for I know the Destiny is ever 
striving to produce something new, and changes the weak as 
well as the strong, by the power of Necessity.’” (PausanlIas.) 








CHAPTER VIL. 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


Tue Septuagint, Polybius, and the New Testa- 
ment were written in what is called Hellenistic 


Greek, or 7 κοινὴ διάλεκτος." I may in fact | 


remark that Hellenistic Greek, or “ ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκ- 
tos,” first made its appearance in the Septuagint. 
For example, “ ἔξελθε ἐκ τῆς γῆς σου, καὶ ἐκ τῆς 
συγγενείας gov... πάντες ἐξέκλιναν, ἅμα ἠχρειώ- 
σθησαν τάφος ἀνεωγμένος ὁ λάρυγξ αὐτῶν," sounds 
just like modern Greek. 

Of Polybius it may be said that the general 
run of his sentences is not so modern as the Sep- 
tuagint, yet many of his peculiarities, or novelties, 
are decidedly modern. The New Testament is 
written in the language in which the newspapers 
are to-day printed in Greece. Everything about 
it is decidedly modern. The language of the 
New Testament needs -no translation with us; it 
is as natural for a Greek, of fair education, to 
understand the New Testament ‘in the original 
Greek” as it is for an American to understand the 
language of an English paper. 


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ΡΣ 


Ἵ 


40 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


To-day there are many books published in 
Athens, written by modern Greeks, in a style far 
above that of the New Testament; take, for in- . 
|) stance: Kat ἠρώτησαν αὐτοὺς λέγοντες : οὗτός ἐστιν 
ὁ υἱὸς ὑμῶν, ὅν ὑμεῖς λέγετε ὅτι τυφλὸς ἐγεννήθη ; 
πῶς οὖν ἄρτι βλέπει; ᾿Απεκρίθησαν αὐτοῖς οἵ γο- 
νεῖς αὐτοῦ, καὶ εἶπον οἴδαμεν ὅτι οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱὸς 
ἡμῶν, καὶ ὅτι τυφλὸς ἐγεννήθη. Now, in all this, 
with the exception of the word οἴδαμεν, for which 
the modern Greek will supply ἠξεύρομεν, every- 
thing else sounds decidedly modern. 

We now pass into the “Roman _ period.” 
Lebeck’s edition of Phrynichus, “ Ecloge and 
Epitome,” will perhaps give an idea as to the 
state of the spoken language about 180 years 
after Christ. | 


We come next to the Diocletian age. The fol- 
lowing Nubian inscription by a King Silco, 
Corpus Inse. iii. p. 486, may serve as a type 
of the Greek προΐει at that time in Atthiopia : — 


3 Ν Ν f a Ν f. a b>] 
Eyo Σιλκὼ βασιλίσκος NovBadav καὶ ὅλων τῶν Aibi- 
7 3 ΟῚ Λ N , ᾿ 7 2 7 
ὁπὼν ἦλθον εἰς Τέλμιν καὶ Ταφιν, ἅπαξ δύο ἐπολέμησα 
nit a 7 νυ. ἄγοι ἸΦὴ , N \ 
peta τῶν Βλεμμύων, καὶ ὁ θεὸς ἐδωκεν μοι TO νίκημα μετὰ 
a 3 an Ὡ ἢ , ACS | - \ , 
τῶν ἐχθρῶν ἅπαξ, ἐνίκησα πάλιν Kal ἐκράτησα Tas πόλεις 
᾽ »" 3 / ‘ nr yf Ν Ν -“ r 
αὐτῶν, exabecOnv μετὰ τῶν ὄχλων μου" TO μὲν πρῶτον 
«Ἁ ae > “ Ν > Ν oY , , > , ’ ὔ 
ἅπαξ ενίκησα αὐτῶν καὶ αὐτοὶ ἠξιωσαν με" εποιήσα εἰρή- 


᾽ ᾽ rn Ν Μ , Ν y+ 3 r Ν 
νην μετ αὐτῶν καὶ ὦμοσαν μοι τὰ εἰδωλα αὐτῶν, καὶ 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. | Ry 


> ’ Pa Ὡ > A e \ a Μ 
ἐπίστευσα τὸν ὅρκον αὐτῶν ὡς καλοὶ εἰσὶν ἀνθρωποι" 
? , ? Ἀνὰ ἂὲ Ul “ 3 ΄ - 
ἀναχωρήθην εἰς τὰ ἄνω μερὴ μου" OTE ἐγεγονομὴν βασι- 
> > a f. / rf ΝΜ ’ 
λίσκος οὐκ ἀπῆλθον ὅλως ὁπίσω τῶν ἄλλων βασίλεων 
3 Ν > Ν » > κι ς Ν A > 
ἀλλὰ ἀκμὴν ἔμπροσθεν αὐτῶν. οἱ yap φιλονεικοῦσιν μετ 
3 a 3 ? a >? ’ὔ . > ‘ > 
ἐμοῦ οὐκ αφῶ (cf. adewvtas in New Testament) avrous eis 
a ? r ᾿] Ν / , \ ἴω 
χώραν αὐτῶν εἰ μὴ κατηξίωσαν pe καὶ παρακαλοῦσιν 
a 3 Ν \ 2 , , ’ ey Ν > 
καθεσθῆναι. “Eyw yap εἰς κάτω μέρη λεων εἰμὶ καὶ εἰς 
ΝΜ / y+ Wes 3 ’ Ν a , Ν 
ἄνω mepn αἱξ εἰμί" ἐπολέμησα μετὰ τῶν Βλεμμύων καὶ 
/ / ͵ > / N ee a 
Πρίμεως ἕως Τελ[ uw lews ev ἅπαξ καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι NovBadav 
3 / Ε] , , 3 a 3 Ν > / 
ἀνωτέρω ἐπόρθησα χώρας αὐτῶν, ἐπειδὴ εφιλονείκησαν 
ὌΝ - 3 3 a >? Ν a ? ‘ Ν 3 ἈΝ 
μετ᾽ ἐμοῦ" οὐκ ἀφῶ avtous καθεσθῆναι εἰς τὴν σκιᾶν εἰ μὴ 
« / / Ν 3 δ Ν Μ ? Ν > / 
ὑποκλίνουσὶ μοι καί οὐκ ETWKAV VNPOV ἔσω ELS τὴν οἰκίαν 
> ra e Ν a 7 ς 7, al rn 
αὐτῶν. Os yap φιλονεικοῦσί μοι aptufw τῶν γυναικῶν 
᾿ς Ss / 3 “ 
καὶ τὰ παιδία αὐτῶν. 


From the age of Diocletian to the Byzantine 
Period is but a step. Now, until the time of 
Ptochoprodromus, in the eleventh century after 
Christ, “artificial Attic” was still the language 
of literature; but the popular dialect, often re- 
ferred to by authors, keeps coming to the surface. 

The following is a short specimen of the 
popular style adopted in this period, from the 
“Apophthegmata Patrum” : — | 


3 , , 3. ,,.3 / 
Ἤλθον ποτε πατέρες εἰς AdeEavdperav κληθέντες ὑπὸ 
Θεοφίλου τοῦ ἀρχιεπισκόπου ἵνα ποιήση εὐχὴν καὶ καθέλ 
ρχιεπ non εὔχην καὶ καθελῃ 
‘ e / Ν > , 3 a 3 > a / 
Ta tepa. Καὶ ἐσθιόντων αὐτῶν παρ αὐτοῦ παρετέθη 


κρέας μόσχιον. Καὶ ἤσθιον μηδὲν δακρινόμενοι καὶ λαβὼν 


Fem 


fo MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


φῶ διε Bg “ , A A / ase , 
ὁ ἐπίσκοπος ἕν κοπαδιν ἔδωκε τῷ πλησίον αὐτοῦ γέροντι 
΄ ? a a Ν ? / ’ 3 a 
λέγων, ἰδοῦ τοῦτο καλὸν κοπάδιν ἐστίν, φάγε aBBa. Οἱ 
3 ca 7 Ν / 
δὲ ἀποκριθέντες εἶπον. Ἡμεῖς ἕως ἄρτι λάχανα ἠσθίομεν 
° Ν / 3 ? , Ν δῶν ὦ / Par 
εἰ δὲ κρέας ἐστί ov τρώγομεν. Καὶ οὕκετι προσέθετο οὐδὲ 


$s! 9 2 κα ΄ 2 A 
εἷς ἐξαυτῶν γεύσασθαι avTov. 


The next period of “Greek literature” may be 
reckoned from 622, the date of the Hegira, to 
1099. We have here before our eyes “the tran- 
sition in literature from the language of the gram- 
marians to the language of the people.” 

Theophanes (758-816). Besides a host of 
new words, and ancient words with new mean- 
ings, he has the following grammatical innova- 
tions : — : 

The endings -ἄδες, -ddwy, -άδας, in nouns in -as; 
ol ἀμηράδες, emirs, τοὺς aunpddas. The endings 
-ἰς, τιν for -Los, -ἰον ; ὁ κύρις τὸν κύριν. “As λαλή- 
σωμεν for λαλήσωμεν, and ἄς εἰσέλθωσι for εἰσελ- 
θόντων. The perfect participle without redupli- 
cation, as σιδηρωμένος, καστελλωμένος πυρπολημέ- 
vos. Ἥμισυ, half, indeclinable. The ending -ος. 
for av; ἀσχήμῳ for ἀσχήμονι; ἀπὸ with the ac- 
cusative. "Amd ᾿Αλεξάνδρειαν ; eis for ἐν. ᾿Εδίδα- 
σκεν ἐν Κωνσταντινουπόλει, εἰς τὸ εὐκτήριον τῆς 
ἁγίας ᾿Αναστασίας; σὺν with the genitive as well 
as ἅμα with the genitive, etc., etc. 

The age of Malalas cannot be determined with 
certainty. Professor Sophocles supposes that, as, 








MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. | 43 


however, most of the grammatical innovations | 
contained in the work that bears his name belong 
to the language of the eighth and ninth centuries, 
it may be assumed that he was contemporary with 
Theophanes._ It would seem, further, that Greek 
was not his mother tongue. 

I. The endings -es for a, as  Πέρσες: for Πέρσαι. 
Metaplastic dative plural ταῖς πλάκαις, from ἡ 
πλάκα, Classical πλάξ πλακός. Participle active in 
ovra for -ov, and evra for -ev; πεσόντα, οἰκοῦντα, 

















ὄντα, μέλλοντα, παρέχοντα. 

The accusative for the dative. The article be- 
fore interrogative words. “Apa, with the genitive. 
"Amo, by, for ὑπό after passive forms. Μετά, with, 
followed by the accusative. 

_ The anonymous biographer of Leo Armenius 
‘uses the following grammatical innovations : — 

The ending. τοὺν ΤΟΥ τ-ουσι; κὐῤιεύουν for κυριεύ- 
ουσι; ἐκ with the accusative καὶ εὐγενὸς for εὐγε- 
νής. The auxiliary ds for ἄφες. x 

Leo the Philosopher (A. D. 886-911), in his 
‘“'Tactica,” employs a considerable number of new 
words and the endings: -os for -ys. | 

Il. ἰδικός = proprium, as in Romaic. The end- 
ing -ἔσαι for -εἰ (second person sing. passive), οὐ 
for μή in the protasis, ete. OTe. 


Constantine Porphyrogenitus, who wrote all his 
works purposely “in the common and spoken 


44 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


language,” with the exception of the Life of St. 
Basil, which was written in the artificial ‘ Attic 
Greek” of that period, gives us: The ending -αις. 
for at; ἀλλάξιμον, gen. ἀλλαξίματος ; σᾶς for ὑμῶν; 
eva for ev; μονογενῆ for the vocative of μονογενῆς; 
τῶν for αὐτῶν; εἶσε for εἶ; σοῦ for hi as καλή- 
σου ἡμέρα, ‘Good morning to you”; va for ἵνα, 
and ἕως with the accus. “Aya, with the subj. Μετά, 
with, followed with the accus., ete. 

An anonymous writer, “ule as ‘'Theophanes 
Continuatus,” makes use of the expression, ‘“‘ the 
common and impure language,” which evidently 
means the language of the illiterate. In his col- 
lection entitled ‘‘Theophanes Continuatus,” we 
find: "Adv, gen. of “Advs, χρυσὸς for χρυσοῦς. 
The ending as, κρασᾶς, vitner, and periphrastic 
future subjunctive. 

Cedrenus (A. D. 1057) eae in ancient Greek, 
but with “indifferent success.” His work contains 
but few grammatical innovations: Gen. in ἡ from 
ns; the numeral adverb ἑπτάϊ for ἑπτάκις. 


Scylitzes gives us the following specimen of the 
common dialect: ἐῶ σε ἔκτισα, φοῦρνε: ἐῶ iva σε 
χαλάσω = in modern Greek, ‘eydé σε ἔκτισα φοῦρνε, 
ἐγώ va σὲ χαλάσω, I built thee, O oven, I will de- 
molish thee! 


Anna Commena, who wrote a history of the 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, $845 


Byzantine War about the year 1100, alludes to 
the common dialect. She has preserved the fol- 
lowing popular tetrastitch : — | 


/ ἊΝ A 
To σάββατον τῆς τυρινῆς 
a 4 ΓΨ 
Χαρῇς ᾿Αλέξιε, ἐνδησές το, 
Καὶ τὴν δευτέραν τὸ πρωΐ" 


Εἶπα, καλῶς γεράκιν μου. 


This closes the medizeval period of Greek liter- 
ature. 

Theodorus Prodromus (A. D. 1143-1180) may 
be regarded as the earliest ‘‘modern Greek author.” 
He is said to have used the ‘ popular dialect,” or 
‘““Romaic Greek,” in its entirety. Before pro- 
ceeding any farther, it may be well to give the 
origin of the term ‘‘ Romaic Greek.” 


ORIGIN OF THE NAME “ROMAIC,” 


In Professor Sophocles’ ‘‘ Romaic Grammar” 
we find that when Constantine the Great trans- 
ferred the seat of empire to Byzantium, he called 
it Νέα Ῥώμη, New Rome. The popular name, how- 
ever, was, and still continues to be, Κωνσταντινού- 
modus, Constantinople, that is Κωνσταντίνου πόλις, 
the city of Constantine. 'The appellation New Rome 
is now obsolete, except in connection with the 
titles of its bishop. Thus, Γρηγόριος ἐλέῳ, Θεοῦ 
ἀρχιεπίσκοπος Κωνσταντινουπόλεως Νέας Ῥώμης καὶ 


46 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


οἰκουμενικός πατριάρχης, Gregory, by the mercy of 
God Archbishop of Constantinople, which is New 
Rome, and Universal Patriarch. After that mem- 
orable event the name of Ῥωμαῖοι, Romans, was 
applied to the Greeks as well as to the genuine 
Romans. The subjects of the Byzantine emperor 
were sometimes distinguished from the Ἕ σπέριοι 
Ῥωμαῖοι, Western Romans, by the adjective ‘Edou, 
Eastern. The Emperor's domain was known as 
Ῥωμανία, Romania, the country of the Romans, a 
derivative of ‘Pwpavos, Romanus, Loman. 

The Greeks being thus changed into Romans, 
it was natural that the name of the language 
should undergo a corresponding transformation. . 
The adjective Ῥωμαίικος (trisyllabic), less cor- 
rectly Ῥωμαῖκος, is derived from Ῥωμαῖος, after 
the analogy of the classical ᾿Αχαιικός, from ᾿Αχαιός. 
Hence ἡ Ῥωμαϊκή γλῶσσα, or simply τὰ Ῥωμαΐίικα, 
Romaic, the language of the Romans. 

The term ἡ Ἑλληνικὴ Τλῶσσα, or simply τὰ 
Ἑλληνικά, is regularly applied now to the ancient 
and present language of Greece. 

Now, we have said that the first modern Greek 
writer who can be said to have used the “ Romaic 
dialect” in its entirety was Theodorus Prodromus 
(A. D. 1143-1180), nicknamed ‘“ Ptochoprodro- 
mus.” He lived in the reign of the Emperor 
Manwel Comnenus, was a monk, and addressed 
to him a series of popular verses, στίχοι πολιτικοί, 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. AT 


preserved to us by Coray inthe first volume of 
his “ Atacta,” Paris, 1828. The burden of these 
verses appears to be the poverty of learned men. 
They are written with great spirit, and in a style 
' which may be termed ‘“ barbarous ancient Greek.” 
Since the emancipation of Greece the style com- 
menced_to show its native power, so that ‘ Romaic 
Greek” or “barbarous a ancient Greek” is a thing 
altogether of the past. The following is a speci- 
men of his style: — 


3 ΩΝ ͵ Ν ’ 
Τὴν κεφαλήν σου, Βασιλεῦ, εἰς τοῦτο Ti μὲ λέγεις ; 
ΝΥ ΓΜ 7 , Ν \ ΩΣ 
Ap ἔχω γείτοναν τιναν KEY παιδὶν ἀγόριν, 
ἡ οἷς 5. aus 7 nN N , 
/ Na tov ero tt, Made το γραμματικὸν va ζησῃ ; 
Ἀ 7 4 \ 2 / 
Παρὰ κρανιαροκέφαλον travtes va 4 ὀνομάσουν. 
N ok 7 Ν ’ 
Νὰ τὸν εἰπῶ tt, Μάθε το τζαγγάρην τὸ παιδὶν σου. 
/ yf , / / 
Γείτοναν ἔχω πετζωτὴν, τάχα ψευδοτζαγγαάρην . 
Ν y+ , + Ν / 
Πλὴν eve καλοψουνίστης, eve Kal YapoKoTos. 
“ . ” \ +N , 
Οταν yap Lon τὴν αὐγὴν περιχαρασσομενην, 
Λέγει ἄς βράσ δ᾽ iv καὶ βάλε τὸ νπέριν" 
eye as βράσῃ To κρασὶ a TT Ep 
> A Ν > , 7 x A / 
Εὐθὺς to Bpacew τὸ θερμὸν λέγει πρὸς TO παιδιν του 
Ν ’ὔ / ὃ ’ὔ > ’ὔ ὃ / ’ 
ἃ τὸ παιδὶν μου, ἀγόρασε χορ ὁκοίλα σταμένου, 
/ A » 
Φέρε καὶ Βλάχικον τυρὶν ἄλλην σταμεναρέαν, 
\ , ‘ ΄ N , N , 
Καὶ δὸς pe va προγεύσωμαι, καὶ TOTE va πετζονω. 
᾽ > ® Ὧν , N N Ἀ N , 
Ad ov δε φθασῃ τὸ τυρὶν καὶ τὰ χορδοκοιλίτζα. 
yf ’ Ν 7 ᾿] * 7 4 
Kav τέσσερα τὸν διδουσιν εἰς TO τρανὸν μουχροῦτιν " 
Ν Ν ς / 3 ,ὔ Ν / 
Καὶ παρευθὺς ὑποδημαν ἐπαίρει καὶ πετζόνει" 


Ὅταν δὲ πάλιν, βασιλεῦ, γεύματος ὥρα φθάσῃ, 


| 
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: § 


48 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


ς / Ν / φῇ Ν Ν / 
Pinres τὸ καλαπόδιν Tov, ῥίπτει καὶ TO σανίδιν, 
Ν , “- ὧν ΩΡ Ν ͵ὔ 
Καὶ λέγει τῆν γυναίκατου, Κυρὰ καὶ θὲς τραπέζιν" 
Ν rn / > / / Ν Ud 
Καὶ πρῶτον μίσσον exfeotov, δεύτερον τὸ σφουγγάτον, 
Ἢ a NS , 5) ad ER , 
Καὶ τρίτον τὸ ἀκριόπαστον οφθὸν ἀπὸ μερίου. 
/ , ‘ , a. Ν ͵ 
Καὶ τέταρτον μονόκυθρον, πλὴν βλέπε νὰ μὴ βραζῃ. 
3 ? e Ν / XN / Ν ’ὔ 
Ad ov δε παραθεσουσιν καὶ veers καὶ κατσῇ, 
3 , ᾽ὔ a \ / 
ἄναθεμα we Βασιλεῦ καὶ τρισαναθεμά με, 
4 A , » Ν Ν Ν a 
Ονταν στραφῶ καὶ ἰδω τὸν λοιπὸν τὸ πῶς καθίζει, 
Ν a 3 , N ͵ Ν ͵ 
Τὸ πῶς avakouTovetat νὰ πιάσῃ τὸ κουτάλιν, 
Ν 2a/ 7 Ν / 6 Ν 4 
Καὶ οὐδὲν τρέχουν τὰ cardia μου, ws τρέχει TO ποτάμιν. 
bet ἐφ BAS: 3 / : ae , a a , 
Καὶ eyo ὑπάγω « epxopar πόδας μετρῶν τῶν στίχων. 
2 ‘x nr Ν [7 ’ Ν lal 
Εὐθὺς ζητῶ tov tapBov, γυρεύω τὸν σπονδεῖον " 
΄ ἈΝ des Ν Ν Ν Ν , ; 
Γυρεύω tov πυῤρίχίιον καὶ Ta λοιπὰ τὰ μέτρα. 
> Ν \ / a? a ? Ν “ , a 
ἄλλα τὰ μετρα που φελοὺῦν σ THY ἀμετρὸν mou πεῖναν; 


\ > Ν dA Ν ’ ͵ὔ 
Πότε yap εκ τον ἕαμβον νὰ φάγω Koopoxpatop ; 


"A » 2 Ν γε} , iN ‘a “ 
πῶς εκ TOV πυρρίχιον TTOTE μου Va XOpTacw ) 


"BSe τεχνίτης σοφιστὴς ἐκεῖνος ὁ Tlayyapns. 


a ᾽ / + / 
Εἶπε τὸ Kipie λέησον, ἤρξατο ῥουκανίζειν. 


We give here some of his grammatical innova- 
tions as collected by Professor Sophocles. They 
will be found of importance to any one who may 
read his writings, and, in fact, a key to the Romaic 
dialect: — wi, A 

I. N, annexed to words ending in a vowel: do- 
pew, ἐκτενίσθην, γείτοναν, τινάν, ὑπόδημαν, Βραδύν, 
ἐκα(έζουν, ἐσέν. 11. The ending ες or aus for αὖ: 
τὲς τέσσαρες γωνίαις. III. The accent of pro- 
paroxytone nouns and adjectives retains its place: 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. — 49 


ὁ κάποιας γειτόνισσας, δεύτερην, σκουμπροπαλαμυ- 
δόπαστου. IV. Augmentative endings, -a: ovpa, 
κομμφηιμ, κομματούρα. V. The adjective ending 
-έα for -εια: τὰς μακρέας͵ μύτας. Vi. The article 
of for ai: of ἀρχόντισσες, οἱ σάρκες. VII. ᾿᾽Ατός, 
self; thus, ᾿Ατός Tov γίνεται᾽ larpés. VIL. ‘Eav- 
τόν, self; thus, τρέφε τὸν ἑαυτόν σου. ΙΧ. Ποῦ or 
ὁποῦ for ὅς, who. X. The verbal ending -όνω or 
ώνω from the classical dw: πετσόνω, σηκώνω. 
XI. Ἔν, ἔνε, ἔνι εἶνε for ᾽εστί or εἰσί. XII. Peri- 
phrastic future by means of θέλω and the infini- 
tive; thus, θέλεις σύρειν, the first example of the 
kn XIII. Future subjunctive by means-of va ~ 
and the imperfect or aorist indicative: va *fovr, 
va μὲ διδαν, νά "pala. XIV. Imperfect passive 
proparoxytone: ἠρχόμην and ἤρχουμουν, νά ᾽ργά- 
ζουμουν, γένουμουν. XV. The ending -ντασι for 
-vto: thus, ἐπουλούντασι for ᾽᾿επωλοῦντο. XVI. The 
accusative for the dative, passim. XVII. The ac- 
-cusative for the genitive after numeral: adverbs: 
ἅπαξ τόν χρόνον, once a year. XVIII. Νά and διά 
νά as in the Greek of the present day. XIX. Ev- 
θύς τό, followed by the aorist infinitive, is equivalent 
to the modern. Εὐθὺς ποῦ, as soon as. XX. All 
the prepositions--take-the.accusative: σὺν τὴν ζή- 
mow. XXI. Οὐδείς for ov, not. 

Almost contemporary with Ptochoprodromus 
was Simon Sethos, who is the first prose writer in 
modern Greek.— 


50 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


The ‘‘ Book of the Conquest of Romania and 
the Morea,” Βιβλίον τῆς κουγκέστας τῆς Ῥωμα- 
vias καί τοῦ Μωραῖος, by the Franks (French, 
Italians), now ascertained to be a translation 
from the French, belongs to the fourteenth cen- 
tury and represents the Romaic of that peridd. 
It is published by Buchon in the second volume 
of his ‘‘ Recherches Historiques,” Paris, 1845. 
Professor Sophocles states, that from the abuse it 
heaps upon the Greeks, because they, on more 
than one occasion, deceived the truth-loving 
Franks, but chiefly because the Latins were 
unable to induce that stiff-necked, perfidious, 
lying people to recognize the apostolic claim of 
the Holy Father, it is not difficult to perceive 
that the translator, as well as the original au- 
thor, was a member of the Western church. 
The “ Book of the Conquest” may be best de- 
scribed ‘fas a rhyming chronicle, which might 
deserve the name of poor verse were it not so 
prosaic, or of bad prose were it not written in 
metre.” 
titled “ Belthandros and Ted θαι ” This poem 
is without question a far more imaginative poem 
than the “ Niebungelied.” The writer possessed 
what is called ‘real genius.” If our reason were 
disposed to deny this, our sensations on perusing 
his work will fully prove it. It is an infallible 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. δὲ 


proof of real genius when a writer possesses the 
power to stir the feelings, or to affect the mind, 
in the most lively manner, by a few words, and 
with the most perfect simplicity of language. 
Such a genius conspicuously marks both Shake- 
speare and the writer of ‘“ Belthandros and Chry- 
santza.” 

The poem, as Geldart remarks, is a romance 
of knight-errantry, in which we can plainly trace 
the effects of the crusades in Greece. ‘The plot 
of ‘ Belthandros and Chrysantza” is simple but 
imaginative. The hero is Belthandros (a Grae- 
cism for Bertran), the son of Rhodophilus, King 
of Romania, who has two sons, Bertran and 
Philarmus, one of whom he loves, and the other 
of whom of course he hates. Belthandros, the 
unfortunate object of his* father’s displeasure, 
accordingly takes a journey eastward, and after 
heroic exploits performed at the expense of his 
father’s men-at-arms, who are despatched to bring 
him back, he reaches Armenia, and the fortress of 
Tarsus. Riding by the side of a small stream, he 
espies a gleam of light in the running waters, and 
follows up the course of the rivulet a ten days’ 
journey. It leads him to a magic building called 
the Castle of Love, built of precious stones, and 
surrounded and filled with every imaginable form 
of wonder, in the way of automaton, birds and 
beasts of gold, reminding us of Vulcan’s work- 


52 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


manship. Then follows an introduction to the 
King of the Loves, the owner of the enchanted 
palace, who gives him the task of choosing the — 
most beautiful out of forty women. He first 
selects three, and having thus equalized the prob- 
lem to that which Paris of old had solved, he 
proceeds to award the palm to Chrysantza, who 
turns out to be the daughter of the King of 
Antiochia, and whose subsequent appearance at 
the court of Rhodophilus reconciles the father, 
and terminates the story with the slaying of the 
fatted calf. 

“Did the modern Greek language possess but 
this single epic, to say that it is destitute of litera- 
ture were a calumny indeed.” — 

Emmanuel Gorgilas CEppavovnd Τεωργιλλᾶς), 
anative of Rhodes, belongs to the latter part of 
the fifteenth century. He wrote several poems in 
Romaic verse. About the same time the story of 
Apollonius of Tyre (Ἀπολλωνίου τοῦ ἐν Τύρῳ) was 
translated into Romaic from the Latin romance 
Apollonius Trius, the supposed prototype of 
Shakespeare’s Pericles, Prince of Tre. 

The following works are attributed to Em- 
manuel Gorgilas. 

1. Διήγησις εἰς Tas πράξεις τοῦ περιβοήτου oTpa- 
τηγοῦ τῶν Ῥωμαίων μεγάλου Βελισαρίου (ἐξεδόθη ἐν 
Βενετίᾳ τῷ 1554 ὑπὸ Φραγκίσκου Ῥαμπατσέτου εἰς 
4 τόμους. ‘The work is metrical. 


. fe i 
Oy, “4 
MODERN GREEK Literayone/-, “S τ 


τ 
2. Τὸ Θανατικόν τῆς Ῥόδου Ἔν ἐν tie) 
ρισιανῇ Βιβλιοθήκη). ω, 
8. Θρῆνος τῆς Κωνσταντινουπόλεως. Ad nF >. 


Demetrius Zenos (Δημήτριος ὁ Ζῆνος), who Ζ 
translated the Batrachomyomachia into the “ Re-/ 
maic dialect,” represents the spoken language of 
the sixteenth century. This translation Martin 
Crusius, A. D. 1526-1607, translated into Latin. 
But almost the only examples of Modern Greek 
in the sixteenth century consist of letters and 
fragments of speeches, chiefly the utterances of 
ecclesiastics. 


| The “ great work” of the seventeenth century, 
as Professor Geldart calls it, is one. entitled 
ἐς Erophile,” written in the Cretan dialect, by one 
Chortakes, a Cretan. It isa tragedy, and opens 
with a monologue of Charon, the impersonation 
‘of Death, who speaks as follows : — 


e bg BR ἢ / > 
H aypia’ « ἡ ἀνελύπητη " κ᾽ ἡ σκοτεινὴ Owpia® μου, 


a4 


K » ‘ ὃ , φ lal 5 \ a Ν , 
al TO OpeTrav “που βαστῶ, καὶ ταῦτα Ta yuuva μου 


Κόκκαλα, « ἡ πολλαὶς Βρονταὶς, « ἡ ἀστραπαὶς ὁμάδι. 


1. Ἢ ἄγρια = ἡ ἀγρία (ὁ ἄγριος, -la, -cov). 
2 » ἀνελύπητη for ἀνέλπιστος, ov, with sense of dempietate: 
3 Owpid = Θεωρία. 
* Sperdv = δρέπανον, ov, τό = Δρεπάνη. 
5 Βαστῶ = Βαστάζω. 


5A MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 
“Orrov τὴν γῆν ἀνοίξασι, κ᾽ ἐβγῆκ ἀποῦ ὃ τὸν Adn, 
Ποιὸς εἶμαι povaya' τωνε δίχως μιλιὰ ὃ μποροῦσι ὃ 
Νὰ φανερώσουν σήμερον σ᾽ ὅσους μὲ συντηροῦσι. 


a 393.ϑ } Ν an 
᾿Εγώμαι ἢ κεῖνος τὸ Aovrov"' am Grow μὲ μισοῦσι, 
Καὶ σκυλοκάρδη 15 καὶ τυφλὸ κ᾽ ἄπονον μέ λαλοῦσι. 
᾽ 5 ) al ᾿ς Ἁ . 9 
Εγὼμ᾽ ὡποῦ τζὴ Βασιλεὺς * τζὴ ᾿μπορουμένους οὕλους, 
‘ ? ? Ν 
Τζὴ πλούσιους κ᾽ ἀνήμπορους ὃ rf" ἀφένταις καὶ τζὴ δούλους 
Ν / Ν Ν 4 ‘ A Ν , 
Τζὴη veovs καὶ Ton γέροντας, μικροὺς καὶ τζὴ μεγάλους 
Ἀ Ν Ν Ν % © 
Ton φρόνιμους καὶ τζὴ χωλοὺς," κ᾽ ὅλους ἀνθρώπους τζ᾽ 
y+ 
αλλους 
Ψ a a / 
Tiapa,” γιαμά ὅντε μοῦ φανῇ ῥίχνω 18 καὶ Θανατόνω. 
3 >? Ν bi. bs Ν ’ 
R εἰς τὸν abo” τζὴ νιότης τους τζὴ χρόνους τους τελειόνω 
, Ν / Ν Ἀ Ν 3 ’ / 
Avovw τζη δοξαις καὶ τιμαὶς Ta νόματα μαυρίζω 
Τζὴ δικαιοσύνας διασκορπῶ, καὶ Tn φιλιαὶς χωρίζω, 
A a x Ν 
TE ἄγριαις καρδιαὶς καταπονῶ, τζὴ λογισμοὺς ἀλλάσσω 
δ᾽ 3 / er > . N Ν 2 9 , 
TE ελπίδες ῥίχνω ς μια μεριὰ, Kat TE ἐγνοιαις κατατάσσω 


Κ᾽ ᾽ ~ ‘ Ν θ Ν , 9 ’ a 
ἐκεῖ που μὲ πολυ θυμὸ τὰ paTLa μον στραφοῦσι, 


8 ἀποῦ = ἀπό. 

7 μοναχάτωνε = by themselves ; so ποτέ μου (never) in my life. 
8 μιλιὰ = ὁμιλία, -as. 

9 μποροῦσι = δύνανται. 

10 ᾿γῶμαι = (γώ) εἶμαι. 

1 τὸ λοιπὸν = in truth, finally (common in modern Greek). 
12 ἀπ᾽ ὅλοι μὲ μισοῦσι = all men hate (me). 

18 σκυλοκάρδη = hound-hearted. 

14 +¢}) Βασιλεὺς, i. 6, τοὺς Βασιλέεξς, contracted for τοὺς Βασιλέξας. 
15 ἀνήμπορους == μικρούς, ἀδυνάτους (weak). 

16 χωλοὺς = μανιώδης. 

1 Τιαμὰ γιαμὰ ὅντε, as soon as; etymology δίἅμα ὄντε χρόνον. 
18 ῥίχνω = ῥίπτω. ν 

19 ἀθὸ = ἄνθος, flower. 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. — δῦ 


/ a 
20 κόσμοι, πολλοί βουλοῦσι. 


Χώραις χαλοῦν, ἁλάκαιραις, 
Ποῦ τῶν ᾿Ελλήνω ἡ Βασιλειαίς ; ποῦ τῶ 'Ρωμιῶν ἡ τόσαις 
Ν a / 

Πλούσιαις καὶ μπορεζόμεναις χώραις ; ποῦ τόσαις γνώσαις ; 


. . . 3. . 
‘ na Ν ‘ / / 
Φτωχοί " στὸ λώκκο κατοικοῦν, βουβοὶ με δίχως * στόμα 


“" a XN 4 A Ν A ΄ “ 
Ψυχαῖς γδυμναῖς “5 δὲν ξεύρω ποῦ στὴ γῆ λιγώκι 5": χῶμα. 
9 de , Ν a 
DQ πλήσια "ὃ κακοῤῥίζικοι "ὃ καὶ γιάντα δὲ θεωροῦσι 
To μέραις πῶς λιγαίνουσι, τζὴ χρόνους πῶς περνοῦσι ; 

Ν Ν Ν > a 
To wes ἐδιώβη, τὸ προχθὲς πληὸ Sev ἀνιστορᾶται, 

/ . Ν A 
S7iOa™ μικρὴ τὸ σήμερο στὰ σκοτεινὰ λογᾶται. 
3 df 3 7. 99 a y+ > , 
Σέναν avovyoodhariopa™ τῶν ἀμματι ἀποσώνω 

Ν / 4 Ν ~ "9 380 A , 
Καὶ δίχως λύπησι καμιὰ Tac” ἄνθρωπο σκοτωνω 
Τὰ κώλλη σβύνω, κ᾽ ὄμορφο πρόσωπο δὲ λυποῦμαι, 

\ Ν a Ν Ν an 
Τοὺς ταπεινοὺς δὲ Aenuova, τοὺς ἄγριους δὲ“ φοβοῦμαι 
. ΄ 7,99 , \ Ν ΜᾺ ͵ 
Tous φεύγουν ᾧταν ογλήγορα, τοὺς we ζητοῦν μακραίνω 
A , Ν ν , 7 N / 3 / 
Καὶ δίχως va we κράζουσι συχνά Ton γάμους ᾿μπαίνω. 

‘ > A a 

Φτωχοὶ T ἀρπῶτε φεύγουσι, τὰ σφίγγετε πετοῦσι, 


Ν “ cal 
Ta περμαζόνετε σκορποῦν, τὰ κτίζετε χαλοῦσι. 


30 ἁλάκαιραις, Cretan, for ὁλόκληραι. 

21 Φτωχοί = πένητες (ἄνθρωποι). 

22 μὲ δίχως = without. The μὲ is pleonastic. 

23 ηδυμναῖς = for γυμναῖς. 

24 λιγάκι = ὀλίγον. 

2 πλήσια = μάλαι 

25 κοκοῤῥίζικοι = ill-fated. To ῥιζικὸ is modern Greek for fate. The 
idea is the same as in πεπρωμένον (common in modern Greek) εἱμαρμένη, 
that which is deep fixed like a root in the ground. ῥίζα. 

27 τὸ Wes, yesterday evening. 

25 Σπίθα = Σπιθαμή. 

29 ἀνοιγοσφάλισμα, from ἀνοίγω and σφαλίζω, i. 6. ἀσφαλίζω, to make fast, 
hence, to shut. 

89 πᾷσα for πάντα. 

81 δὲ for δὲν = οὐ, 


56 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


, 3 / Ν 4 Ν , 
Σὰ σπίθα" σβύν᾽ ἡ δόξα cas, τὰ πλούτησας σὰ σκόνη 3 


, N ͵ \ oo» ͵ , 
Σ κορπούσηνε καὶ χάνονται, Kal T ὄνομὰ σας λυόνει 
A ᾿ς Ν , ’ 
Σὰ vatov™ μὲ τὸ χέρι σας γραμμενο εἰς περιγιάλι 
Ν ͵ 4 Ἀ 4 Ν 
Στὴ διάκρισι τζή θάλασσας, γὴ χάμαιϑ στὴν πασπάλη 


x ἐδιάλεξα εὐγεμέστατο Μουρμούρ᾽ ὑψηλότατε 


36. ον , , 
καὶ τζὴ τιμαῖς γεμᾶτε, 


Prepay π᾿ ὅλαις TE ἀρεταῖς 
7 Ἀ 
Μὲ 7 ὄνομά σου τοῦτο μου τὸν κόπον νὰ στολίσω, 
Ν ἢ ἊΝ Ν ’ὔ , \ / 
Ka χάρι ago ate χάραις σου TANGA va Gov χαρίσω. 


Γιατί 


ὅσω σὲ θεωρώ ψηλὸ," σὲ βλέπω κἄλλο τόσο 

Me σπλάγχνος ἀνεξίκακο, K ἄμετρη καλοσύνη ---- 

Κ᾽ εἶσαι ᾽π τὴν ᾽περηφάνησι μακρὰν τοῦ κόσμου κείνη 
Ν XN A Ν -“ ’ὔ Jar a / 

Τὴ cKotewn, ποῦ δὲ γεννᾷ λάβρα, οὐδὲ has χαρίζει 


/ Ν Ν κ , 
Ma τζίμκνα μόνο καὶ καπνὸ τὰ τρίγυρα γεμίζει. 


The next writer we shall notice is Franciscus 
Scuphos, who flourished about the year 1669. 
He was born in Crete and was educated in Italy, 
and was also professor at the Greek school in 
Venice. He wrote a work on Rhetoric, which 
may be regarded, in the words of an’ English 
scholar, a living example of the fact that the 
oratory of the ancients continues to live in the 
oratory of modern Greece. 

82 Σὰ σπίθα = ὡς σπινθήρ. Lat. scintilla. 

δ σὰ σκόνη = ὡς κονιορτός (dust). 

Σὰ νᾶτον --- ὡσὰν. 
χάμαι, Cretan, for the modern χάμου, the ancient χαμαί, 
TS dperals = τὰς ἀρετάς. 


Γιατί = ἐπειδήπερ (γάρ). 


ψηλό --- ὑψηλόν --- μέγαν. 
Tgixva, a curious corruption and metathesis for κρῖ ζα, 


8. 835 δ & αὶ 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. BT 


In the eighteenth century we are met by the 
names of Kosmas the Aetolian and Rhegas of 
Pherae, both scholarly men, and the great fore- 
runners of Greek independence. ‘The following 
oath administered by Rhega to all his confeder- 
ates, is an example of his deadly intolerance to 
tyranny : — 

Ἶ Βασιλεῦ τοῦ κόσμου ὁρκίζομαι εἰς σέ, 

᾿ Στὴν γνώμην τῶν τυῤῥάνων νὰ μὴν €Ow ποτέ. 
Μήτε νὰ τοὺς δουλεύσω. μήτε νὰ πλανεθῶ, 
Eis τὰ ταξίματά των νὰ μὴ παραδοθώ. 
᾿Ενόσῳ ζώ σ᾽ τὸν κόσμον, ὁ μόνος μου σκοπός 
Τοῦ νὰ τοὺς ἀφανίσω νὰ ἧναι στραθερός. 
Πιστὸς εἰς τὴν πατρίδα συντρίβω τὸν ζυγόν 
Ki ἀχώριστος νὰ ζήσω ἀπὸ τὸν στρατηγόν. 
K’ av παραβῶ τὸν ὅρκον, ν᾿ ἀστράψη ὁ οὐρανός 


Ν Ν Ν / A 3 ς Ν 7 
Καὶ va μὲ κατακαύσῃ νὰ γεν ὠσὰν καπνος. 


Here is another war-song, which contributed 
in no small degree to fire the Greeks with that 
enthusiasm for liberty which soon resulted in the 
insurrection : — . 


Παιδιὰ τοῦ Ἡρακλέους oppate, μὲ σπαθιὰ 
Κρατεῖτε μ᾽ ἕνα χέρι, μὲ τ᾽ ἄλλο τὴν φωτιά, 

e , / / σ , 
Opunoate γενναίως, δράμμετε ὅλοι pay 

Καὶ δείξατε τῶν ᾿Ελλήνων τὸ γένος ὅτι ζῆ. 
Σπετσιώται, καὶ Ὑδριῶται, κὶ ἀδέλφια Ψαῤῥιανοί, 
> A Ν A 
Εἰς τ᾽ ᾿Αρχιπέλαγόν μας Τοῦρκος as μὴ φανῆ. 


δ cd , / de q a 
Ap τις ὅμως τολμήσῃ νὰ παρρουσιασθῇῃ 


58 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


᾿ / A pie Lp 3 A 
Sta Ban τῆς θαλάσσης as καταποντισθῇ ---- 
‘ , \ a > / , 
‘Qs ποτε παλληκάρια νὰ ζῶμεν σ᾽ τά στενὰ 


Σ x / \ a > yes Ν / : 
TNALAS νὰ κατοίκωμεν σ᾽ τὰ ὁρὴ καὶ βουνὰ; 


Rhegas was betrayed to the Turks by the 
Christian government of Austria, and was by 
them put to death on the spot, at Belgrade. 

The following inscription was engraved on the 
tombstone of Rhegas and Kosmas : — 


Οὗτοι ἐλευθερίαν θηρώμενοι ἀγλαόμορφον 
Εὗρον ἑνὶ ξυλόχοις ᾿Οκρυύεντα μόρον " 
Χαίρετε Θηρευταὶ κοιμώμενοι, ἐσόκεν ἠὼς 
"EXOn ἀπ᾽ ᾽Ολύμπου λαμπάδ᾽ ἀνισχομένη * 
καὶ τότ᾽ ἐγειρόμενοι πολίῳ βρόμῳ ὀρνυμενάων 


7 “ιν ͵ > 9 ͵ 
δαίμονες εἰς ἄγραν σπεύδετ᾽ ἀλεξίκακον. 


In 1777, was born at Larissa, in Thessaly, 
Constantinus Cumas, author of a great number 
of geographical, mathematical, and philosophical 
works. He was known under the name “ὁ 
φιλόσοφος ᾿ (the philosopher). Most of the 
learned Greeks of those times were from Ru- 
melia, which province was in higher repute on 
this account than any other in Greece. Numbers 
of the “‘ Kleptes” were men of scholastic attain- 
ments. Having been abroad, and seen a better 
state of things, as well as having acquired refine- 
ment from books, they could not submit to the 
degradation that awaited them among the Turks, 
and therefore retired to the mountains and lived 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. Bd 


in independence. In some of the wildest and 
most dreary mountains were many of the most 
intelligent of our people, and in the dress of shep- 
herds were to be found men such as Constantinus 
Cumas. 

Constantinus Cumas was one of those lettered 
‘Greeks who began to propose the cultivation of 
the spoken language. ‘Their plan was as fol- 
lows: — 

I. The ancient inflections are to be preferred 
to the corresponding modern es medizeval in- 
flections. 

If. All barbarous .or foreign words and idioms 
are to be banished. 

III. All new words are to be formed by deriva- 
tion and composition after the analogy of the 
ancient language. 

IV. The ancient orthography of words of 
Greek origin is to be preferred. 

The following is a specimen of Cumas’ style: — 


? 9. 4 \ \ 4 / ad 3 , 
AXXr εἶναι, πρὸς Atos, φρονιμος τέκτων οστίς ayopater 
/ Ν / Norte na ? / lat! cola 
σκεπάρνιον καὶ πριόνιον τὰ ὁποία ἐμποδίζονται ἀπὸ τὴν 
’ Ν Ψ ‘ δὰ ΕἿΣ 7, 
χρύυσωσιν καὶ τοὺς ἄλλους στολισμοὺς νὰ ἐκπληρωσωσι 
ἌΣ τὴν δ. x ΝΜ Sle Ν a“ \ So ek 
. τὰ LOLA αὑτῶν ἔργα, ἤγουν TO ἐν va πέλεκᾳ TO δὲ ἕτερον 
ἈΝ ? , , / Ψ » δ 
νὰ πριονίξῃ; ἀπαράλλακτα πάσχει, νομίζω ὅστις διὰ va 
/ Ν a Ν Ν 2 4 Ν Ν 
στολίσῃ τὴν γλωσσαν μὲ γενικας ἀπολύτους καί δοτικὰς 
Ν \ Me , ? ͵ ΄ . \ 
καὶ χωρὶς ἀνάγκην λέξεις ἀσυνειθίστους, κινδυνεύει νὰ τὴν 
’ 3 , >] Ν > ἊΣ Μ 3 , 
καταστησῃ αἀκαταληπτον εἰς τοὺς ἀκούοντας ἢ ἀναγινω- 


σκοντας. 


60 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. | 


The following is a catalogue of Constantinus 


Cumas’ published works : — 
Ἢ Ἰ j ¥ j : Vols. 
Κωνικῶν τομῶν ἀναλυτικὴ πραγματεία τοῦ ᾿Αββᾶ 


Καΐλλου. 1808. Sa A Ύς 
Σειρὰ μαθηματικῶν καὶ φυσικῶν πραγματειῶν. 1807 
᾿Αδήτου χημείας ἐπιτομὴ. 1808 . 
Σύνοψις πειραματικῆς φυσικῆς. 1812 . 
Βειλάνδου ᾿Αγώθων. 1814. 
Σύνταγμα φιλοσοφίας. 1818 -- 1819 
Τεννεμάλου ἱστορία τῆς φιλοσοφίας. 1818 
Σύνοψις ἱστορικῆς χρονολογίας. 1818 . 


μιμ bt He CD et DD CO Ht 


Σύνοψις παλαιᾶς γεωγραφίας μὲ ὃ πίνακας. 1818 . 
. Σύνοψις ἐπιστημῶν (ἀριθμητικῆς, γεωμετρίας, νεωτέ- 

ρας γεωγραφίας, ἀστρονομίας, λογικῆς καὶ 

ἠθικῆς). 1818 SO terete git Scere ἢ 
Δεξικὸν τῆς ᾿Ελληνικῆς γλώσσης. 1826 . . . . 2 
Βειλάνδου ᾿Αβδηρῖται. 1827 . ΟΝ ΤΈΜΝΕΙ 
‘Iotopia τῶν ἀνθρωπίνων πράξεων. 1830-32 . . 12 
PMMA UAT τ τ} τὲ ΑΓ δ πο όσον Sang Set Ὁ Ἂν 
᾿Αδριανοῦ Βάλβη γεωγραφία. 1898 -- 1840 5 


45 


The great name that appears at the end of the 
eighteenth century is that of Adamantius Coraes, 
the great patriot and linguistic reformer, and one 
of the most celebrated literati of Kurope, as 
Professor Geldart and others justly assert. Born 
at Smyrna, on April 27, 1748, the two sentiments 
which formed his main-springs of action through- 


~ 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. ae 


out life, were early developed, namely, patriot- 
ism, synonymous in his case with hatred of the 
Turk, and a passion for learning. His historian 
informs us that in his native town he was greatly 
assisted in his lingual and other studies by the 
Dutch consular chaplain, Bernhard Keum, of 
whom he makes frequent and affectionate men- 
tion in his ‘ Autobiography and Correspond- 
ence.” At the age of twenty-four he became his 
father’s mercantile agent at Amsterdam, where he 
spent six years, but the ledger was the least 

interesting of his books, and in 1778 he was 
recalled. He returned with the greatest reluc- 
tance, because his darling project was to study 
medicine in France, in order that, should he be 
obliged to live among the Turks, he might 
exercise among them the only profession which 
procured respectful treatment for the Greeks. 
After four melancholy years at Smyrna, his 
wishes were at length complied with, and in 1782 
he arrived at Montpellier. He distinguished him- 
self in this famous medical school, and, having 
obtained his diploma, removed to Paris in 1788, 
where, instead of practising his profession, he ~ 
engaged in literary labors, most of them having — 
a patriotic aim. Here he wrote letters to his 
countrymen, encouraging them in the struggle 
for freedom to which Rhegas was already insti- 
gating them; and here he pursued those studies 


62 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


which have established his fame as a European 
scholar. Napoleon selected him to prepare a 
translation of Strabo’s Geography, the first vol- 
ume of which was presented to the Emperor in 
1805. In a letter dated Leyden, July 22d, of 
that same year, Wyttembach, writing to Larcher, 
calls Coraes “not only a Grecian but a veritable 
Greek.” In 1807 his edition of Isocrates pro- 
cured for him the title of ‘ Patriarch of Greek 
Philology,” and in 1814 he received an official 
letter inquiring if he would accept a Greek chair 
in the Collége Royal. .... About the first week 
of April, 1833, Coraes, having extended his hand 
to.reach a cup of coffee, fell to the ground and 
received injuries from which he died the 10th 
of eae 1833. He was buried at “Mont Par- 
nasse,” and the following inscription was engraved 
on his tombstone : — 


AAAMANTIOX ΚΟΡΑΗΣ 
ΧΙΟΣ 
Ὑπὸ ξένην μέν ἴσα δὲ τῇ ᾿Ελλάδι πεφιλημένην γῆν 
τῶν Παρισίων 


ΚΕΙ͂ΜΑΙ. 


His published works are as follows : — 


La Médecine Clinique. 1787. Montpellier. 

Μετάφρασις ἐκ τοῦ γερμανικοῦ τοῦ Selle. 

Introduction ἃ l’étude de la Nature et de la Médecine. 
Thid. 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. = es 


Catéchisme Orthodoxe Russe. (From the German of 
Plato, Archbishop of Moscow.) 

Vade-mecum du Médecin. Montpellier. (From the 
English.) | 

Esquisse d’une Histoire de la Médecine. Paris. 1767. 
(From the English.) 

Pyretologiae Synopsis. Montpellier. 1786. 

᾿Αδελφικὴ διδασκαλία, an Answer to Πατρικὴ διδασκα- 
Ava, ἃ Forgery of the Turkish Government, published 
under the name of Anthimus, Patriarch of Jerusalem, for 
the purpose of allaying the tumultuary tendencies of the 
Greek subjects of the Porte. 

Les Caractéres de Théophraste. 1799. 

Traité d’Hippocrate, des airs, des eaux et des lieux. 
Paris. 1806. 

Ibid., second edition with Greek title. 1816. 

Βεκκαρίου περὶ ἀδικημώτων καὶ ποινῶν. Paris. 1802, 
1829. 

Σάλπισμα πολεμιστήριον: Paris. 1803. (On the 
death of Rhegas.) 

᾿Ηλιοδώρου Αἰθιοπικὰ Βιβλία δέκα. Paris. 1804. In 
two Volumes. 

Lettre du Docteur Coray sur le testament secret des 
Athéniens, dont parle Dimarque dans la harangue contre 
Demosthénes. 

Διώλογος δύο Τραικῶν κατοίκων τῆς Βενετίας. 1805. 
καὶ ἐν Ὑδρᾳ. 1825. 

Πρόδρομος Ἑλληνικῆς Βιβλιοθήκης. 1809 -- 1827. ‘E)- 
ληνικὴ Βιβλιοθήκη. Paris. 1807—1835. 15 volumes. 
(Consisting of editions of classical authors, with notes. ) 
΄ ITapepya ᾿'Ελλ. Βιβλιοθήκης. 1809-1827. 9 volumes. 

᾿Ιλλιάδος ῥαψωδίαι Δ. 1811-1820. 


64 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


Διατριβὴ αὐτοσχέδιος περὶ τοῦ περιβοήτου δόγματος ΄ 


τῶν σκεπτικῶν φιλοσόφων Νόμῳ καλόν, Nouw κακόν. 
"Araxta. Paris. 1818-1825. 2 volumes. 
Συνέκδημος iepatixos. 1831. 
Σύνοψις ἱερᾶς Κατηχήσεως. 
Αὐτοβιογραφία. 1833. 


Besides a great many articles in the “ Logios 
Hermes,” a Greek periodical published in Vienna, 
on philological and political subjects. 

On his death he left his library and manuscripts 
to the gymnasium at Chios, the birthplace of his 
ancestors. His unpublished works are more nu- 
merous, if not more voluminous, than those which 
have been given to the world. Besides this, the 
margins of many of his books are crowded with 
notes in his handwriting. 

The following is a catalogue of the works 
which were bestowed by him to the library of 
Chios, and which remain as yet unpublished. 


Adnotationes in Atheneum. 

Notes sur Eschyles. 

᾿Ιλιάδος ‘Parodia E, ἕως τὸν 250 στίχον. 

Σημειώσεις εἰς τοὺ ᾿Αθήναιον καὶ Ἡροδοτον. 

Ὕλη Δεξικοῦ Γαλλογραικικοῦ. 

Γραμματικαὶ Σημειώσεις. 

Ἴσον τῶν σταλθὲξισῶν σημειώσεων εἰς Εἰ. Barcker, διὰ 
τὴν νέαν ἔκδοσιν Δεξικοῦ Hederius. 


᾿Εξηγήσεις εἰς τὸν ᾿Απολλώνιον περὶ συντάξεως. 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 65 


ΓΤαληνοῦ εἰς τὸ περὶ χυμῶν “Ἱπποκράτους, σελ. 1-401, 
κείμενον σελ. 4—75 σημ. 1-170 ἀντίγραφον. 

᾿Αρεταίου μετάφρασις Γαλλικὴ, ἀδιόρθωτος καὶ ἀτελὴς, 
σελ. 1-407. - 

Σημειώσεις εἰς τὸ προσωρινὸν Πολίτευμα τῆς ᾿Ελλάδος. 

Observationes miscelaneae, pag. 1 -- 906, 

Idem sine paginatione. 

Idem in Atheneum, pag. 1-139. 

Δεξικολογία. 

Μετάφρασις Ἡροδότου εἰς τὸ Γραικικὸν, σελ. 1-1250 
ἕως τὸν παράγρ. 56 τοῦ T Βιβλίου. 

᾿Αφορισμῶν “Ιπποκράτους, μετάφρασις Γαλλικὴ ἀδιόρθω- 
τος καὶ ἀτελὴς, σ. 1-- 241. 

Plus V’art de la médecine, pag. 1-10 et une table le 
tout incoplet. 

Κείμενον καὶ σημειώσεις εἰς τὸ περὶ διαίτης ὀξέων, καὶ 
εἰς τὸ περὶ ἀρχαίας ᾿Ιατρικῆς τοῦ Ἱπποκράτους, cer, 116 
τὸ Κείμενον, αἱ σημ. σ. 117 -- 408. 

Σημειώσεις κατὰ Γαληνοῦ ἐκ τῶν αὐτοῦ συγγραμμάτων 
σελ. 1-1067. "Ἔτι τινὲς σημειώσεις εἰς τὰ συγγράμματα 
τοῦ ‘Immoxpatovs cer. 1--21. 

Γραμματικὴ τῆς Γραικικῆς γλώσσης ἀτελείωτος. 

Collationes des manouscris Grecs, pag. 1-84. 

Στίχοι Iwavvov Τζέτζου. 1-141. teal 

Περὶ μέτρων, σελ. 1-48. 
Σχόλια εἰς τὸ ᾿Απολλωνίου περὶ συντάξεως, σελ. 1 -- 24. 
Δεξικολογία ἀπό τὸ ᾿Ελληνικὸν εἰς τὸ Γραικικόν. | 
Δεξικὸν διαφόρων συγγραφέων εἰς τὸν ἽΙπποκράτην. 
Adnotationes in varios Auctores Greecos. 

"Ἄλλη “Δεξικολογία ἀπὸ τὸ ᾿ΕἙλληνικὸν εἰς τὸ Γραικικόν. 


66 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


Few countries, Geldart says, none certainly 
save Germany, can show such a literary Hercules 
as Adamanties Coraes, the second Leo Allatius 
of Greece. Ν . 

The next writer we shall notice is Constantinus 
Oekonomos, who was contemporary with Coraes. 
He was a native of Thessaly, and had received a 
superior education. He soon became remarkable 
for his opposition to some of the doctrines and 
practices which had before prevailed amongst the 
Greeks, or, at least, had not been openly opposed. 
A Greek historian informs us that the bishop 
soon viewed him with dislike, being a man in- 
ferior in education, talents, and soundness of: 
opinion, and at length interdicted his public 
preaching. Oekonomos had a sincere desire to 
establish better principles amongst his country- 
men, and intended to introduce all possible im- 
provements in the system of education, and was 
disposed to forward everything that might prove 
beneficial to them. He did not, therefore, allow 
himself to be discouraged by the bishop’s oppo- 
sition, but made a journey to Constantinople to 
obtain permission of Gregorius, the patriarch, to 
preach where he pleased. In this he succeeded ; 
and, after his return to Smyrna, preached with 
more zeal and boldness than before. The char- 
acter of Oekonomos was of the most sincere, 
frank, and friendly description, with the most 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. |" 


kind and willing disposition. He combined an 
extraordinary decision and independence. His 
historian informs us that he regarded the ob- 
servance of ceremonies, by many so much insisted 
on, as a matter of small importance compared 
with the feelings they were designed to cultivate 
or to express. Oekonomos devoted his attention 
and time much to the establishment of schools. 
He acted in this co-operation with various en- 
lightened Greeks, who were anxious for the 
greater extension of knowledge among the Greeks, 
and had taken pains to introduce the Prussian 
system of instruction in the schools he was 
endeavoring to establish. 

Jacob Rhizos Nerulos, known under the ap- 
pellation of “‘the modern Aristophanes of Greece,” 
was contemporary with Oekonomos. He was 
the unsparing satirist of the ‘ Logios Hermes,” 
and his style was and is still known under the 
appellation of the ‘‘ Nerulian style.” 

To illustrate the above I give three short ex- 
tracts, taken respectively from the ““Αὐτοβιογρα- 

ta” of Coraes, the treatise “ Περὶ Προφορᾶς " of 
Oekonomos, and the ‘ Kopaxiorixa,” a satirical 
comedy of Nerulos, in which I need hardly say 
the Κόρακες are the followers of Coraes. 


et 3 , Ἀ x. 7 N a , 
Au ἐκδόσεις pov Sev ἔλειψαν ὅμως va μοῦ γεννήσωσι 
Ν 3 Ἁ "3 7 Ν . \ ς , Ν 
kat ἔἐχθρους, ὀλίγους τινὰς σχολαστίκους, ἐνωμένους με 


Υ ν ne A 7 ε ε a Ν 
οχι πολλοὺυς του LEPATLKOU τάγματος, οὐ οποίον ME κατεπο- 


68 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


/ > ’ἤ e ’ + ’ 3 Ν Ἀ 
λέμησαν ἀγρίως ὡς καινοτόμον Ὄχι μόνον εἰς τὰ περὶ Tal- 
Rs if 3 Ν ὑς 2 ead Ν / fa 
δείας, ἀλλὰ καὶ εἰς αὐτὴν μου THY θρησκείαν. Metavod 

’ὔ Ψ x > ἄν / > 3 / 7 yf 
τώρα, OTL TOUS ἀντεπολέμησα K ἐγω" φρονιμώτερα ἤθελα 

’ὔ 3 3 an Ν Ν / a> 
πράξειν, av ἀκολουθοῦσα τὸ σοφὸν παράγγελμα τοῦ Ἐπικ- 
iv A 3 a >> > f 

τήτου, * Edokev avt@. — CORAES, Αυτοβιογραφία. 


To περὶ γνησίας τῶν ᾿Εχλληνικῶν γραμμάτων προφορᾶς 
΄ , N a ὕ 27 - Ν 2 
πολύκροτον πρόβλημα, πρὸ τριῶν ἤδη αἰώνων εἰς THY Ev- 
Ν A Ν “ 
ρώπην ἀναφυὲν, ὑπῆρξε πολλάκις εἰς πολλοὺς πολλῶν καὶ 
a e yf 
μεγάλων συζητήσεων ὑπόθεσις. Πρῶτος ὁ σοφὸς Ερασμος 
Ν a 3 / Ν “ / ’ Ν 
περὶ τῷ 1520 ἁπολακτίσας THY ἕως τότε συνήθη καὶ νενο- 
μισμένην, ἐπενόησεν ἄλλην παντάπασι νέαν καὶ ἀνήκου- 
᾿ A € A , 3 , Ὡς ς ,ὔ Ν 
στὸν τῆς Ελληνικῆς γλωσσὴς ἐκφωνησιν, τὴν ὁποίαν καὶ 
παρέδωκεν εἰς τοὺς ὁπαδούς του ὡς μόνην ἀληθινὴν καὶ 
/ 
γνησίαν, καθ᾽ qv τάχα καὶ οἱ παλαιοί “Ελχληνες ἐπρόφερον 
τὴν γλῶσσάν των. --- OEKONOMOS Περί προφορᾶς. 


> v4 ’ ’ ς ae , g99¢e A 
Eiva δύο χρόνια twpa ὁποῦ ὁ πατέρας μου ἀῤῥωστεῖ 
> %7¢ » , . N κ A Ὁ . ΚΓ 
ἀπ᾿ ἕν ἀλλόκοτο πᾶθος τὸ νὰ ὁμιλῇ κορακίστικα, καὶ AXXO 
N ͵ ͵ , ; / Ν ἈΝ ’ , $9 
Sev κάμνει παρά va σκαλίζῃ reEtKa, va πλάττῃ λέξεις ἀνή- 
Ν / Ν ’ -~» , 
kovoTais καὶ παράξεναις, va διαβαζῃ Kate διαβολόχαρτα 
Ί.- t A x. Ἂν 44 λ , ‘E A Ν Ν 7 
τυπωμένα, ὁποῦ. Ta ὀνομάζουν λόγιον Epyn καὶ va γραφῃ 
NS Ν ω \ n ° A x a SoS 
καὶ va λαλῇ μιὰ γλῶσσα, ὁποῦ τὴν δημιουργεῖ ὁ ἰδιος. 
ry , 7 κ ‘ e ,ὔ , N ς , 
Τὶ νὰ κάμω; γιά νὰ τὸν ὑποχρεώσω, βιάξω τὸν ἑαυτὸν 
κ᾿ ΄ ? A a ? , ; N 9 
μου va μάθω αὑταῖς ταῖς αηδεσταταις φλυαρίαις, καὶ pw 
7. e ra ον a ¢ a > 7 AN Ν 
ὅλον ὁποῦ δὲν γυρνᾶ ἡ γλῶσσα μου, T αὑτὰ τὰ καταρα- 
, / > of A 3 x ἈΝ Ν ΄ 
μένα KOPAKLOTLKA, μ᾽ ὅλον τοῦτο, ἐπειδὴ καὶ τὰ λατρεύει, 
7 ἀπ, Ν Ν ῃ a \ a N 9 
βιάζομαι K ἔγω Va τὸν OMLAW TH γλῶσσα του, καὶ εἰς 
7 4 9 ’ ‘ id A > / Ν ,ὔ Ν 
κάθε λέξι. δική του ὁποῦ ἤθελα προφέρει pe Sider τὴν 
> ’ aa / 
εὐχή tov. — NERULOS, Κορακίστικα. 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 69 


Modern Greece has not produced many author- 
esses. But among these, Angelica Pala, chiefly 
known by the following ode “On the Death of 
Lord Byron,” is certainly the most distinguished. 
She belongs to the beginning of the nineteenth 
century. - 

Ἢ 
Τοὺς λαμπροὺς ὕμνους τῆς νίκης ἀφίνων 
Κλαυθμῶν ἠχεῖ ἡρώων ὁ στρατὸς " 
Πικρώς λυποῦντ᾽ αἱ ψυχαὶ τῶν Ελλήνων, 


γ 2 ΄ , \ e ? , 
Τ᾽ ἀκούει μακρόθεν καὶ χαίρει ὁ ἐχθρος. 


2. 
e Λ 3 
Ο φίλος ἦλθε: πλὴν μόλις τὸν εἶδον 
’ὔ ’ Ν , 2 n 
Σκάώπτουν κλαίοντες Tov ταφον αὑτοῦ, 
3 A . 
Ιδοῦ τὸ τέλος ἐνδόξων ἐλπίδων, 


Ν Ν ’ὔ - 
Καὶ τὸ τρόπαιον θανάτου σκληροῦ. 


3. 
ἮΗλθε va ἐμπνεύσῃ ὡς ἄλλος Tuptatos 
Εἰς κάθε στῆθος πολέμων ὁρμήν. 
Πλὴν, φεῦ, 6 Βώρδος ἐλπίσας ματαίως 


3 A 4 9 77 / 
Ιδοῦ μένει εἰς αἰωνιον σιωπὴν. 


4, 
‘As δένδρον κεῖτ᾽ om’ ἐκόσμει μεγάλως 
Τὴν κορυφὴν μουσικοῦ Παρνασσοῦ. 
Νῦν πρὸ ποδῶν φθείρουσά του τὸ κάλλος 


Πνοὴ τὸ ἔῤῥιψ᾽ ἀνέμου σφοδροῦ. 


70 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


5. 
᾿ΕἙλλὰς ! ἐὰν τὸ σῶμα του ἡ ᾿Αγγλία 
Νὰ φέρη εἰς μνῆμα ξητᾷ πατρικόν. 
Εἰπὲ, Μουσῶν ὦ μητέρα γλυκεῖα, 


> , e evs f a 
Εἶναι τέκνον μου ὁ υἱὸς tov Μουσῶν. 


6, 


a a 3 ’ Ἁ ᾽ 
Katadpovev τῶν ἐρώτων τοὺς θρήνους, 
ε a \ δ᾽ ὉΠ \ , 

Ἡδονῆς μην ἀκούων τὴν φωνὴν 

Ν Ν 

᾿Εζήτει ἐδὼ ἡρώων τοὺς κινδύνους 


Τάφον ἂς ἔχῃ ἡρώων ᾽στὴν γῆν. 


The great lyrical poet of Greece is, however, 
Athanasios Christopulos, the so-called modern 
Anacreon. He was born at Kastoria, in Mace- 
donia, in 1772, and died in Moldavia, where he 
held the office of judge, in 1847. Professor 
Geldart states that his undoubted genius was 
consecrated chiefly to the glory of the wine- 
bottle, yet he wrote some love-songs of exquisite 
tenderness and beauty, which have been copied 
without acknowledgment by various modern 
poets. Consciously or unconsciously, the “ Night- 
ingale” of Christopulos is certainly at the founda- 
tion of the “Swallow” of Tennyson. Inasmuch 
as the nightingale sings, and the swallow only 
twitters, my readers will agree with Professor 
Geldart in preferring the Greek to the English 
poet in this particular case. 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. i | 


Christopulos and two other very popular poets 
of Modern Greece, Vallariotes and Solomos, 
wrote for the common people in vernacular 
Romaic. . The following extracts, taken respec- 
tively from the works of these three great poets, 
may serve as examples : — 


OLD AGE, 


ἈΚ Ὲ ’ ‘ 3 / 
Na ἡ τρίχες σου ἀρχίζουν 
᾿Αθωνάσιε v ἀσπρίζουν ! 
Νὰ δακρύων ἐποχή ! 
Νὰ σέ λέγει καὶ ὁ "Ἔρως, 
, , 
Φίλε πλέον εἶσαι γέρος, 
3 Ν A 
Στὸ ἑξῆς καλὴ ψυχή. 
Τὴ νεότητα χαιρέτα, 
Τὰ φιλήματ᾽ ἄφησέ τα, 
bt ἢ U ’ 
Ξεχασὲέ τα παρευθύς, 
or. ’ 4e¢ / 
Καὶ ἀρχίνα μὲ ὑγεία 
\ \ \ a 
Ta πικρὰ τὰ γερατεῖα 
\ tga \ Ν » 
Σ᾽ τὸ ἑξῆς νὰ τὰ γευθῆς. 
δὲν σὲ πιάνουν τὰ λουλούδια, 
Ν Ν , \ / 
Ζεν ce πρέπουν τὰ τραγούδια, 
Πῆγ᾽ ἐκεῖνος ὁ καιρός" 
Τώρα τάφος πλησιάζει, 
Τώρα θάνατος φωνάζει, 
Τώρα χάρος λυπηρός ! 
σ 
Οθεν πλέον ἑτοιμάσου, 
“Pinte ὅλα τὰ καλάσου 


‘ A 
IT¢e τὸν κόσμον "Eve Γειά! 
μ χ 


72 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


Ν \ , / / 
Kai ta daxpva βάστα μόνον 
? \ / ? ? ἣν / 
Εἰς τὴν λύπην K εἰς TOV πόνον 


Μιὰ μικρὴ παρηγοριά! 


ANSWER TO THE PRECEDING. 
Ila! ἡ τρίχες w av ἀσπρίζουν 
Μήπως τάχατε πικρίζουν ; 

Τὶ ἔχ ἡ ἄσπρη τους βαφή; 
Τοιγὰρ τ᾽ ἄσπρο θανατόνει ; 
Ἢ φιλῶντας ἀγκυλόνει 

Τὰ χειλάκια σ᾽ τὴν ἀφή; 

To τριαντἀφυλλό μας πρώτον 
Τὸ λουλούδι τῶν ᾿Ερώτων 
Εἶναι ἄσπρο καθαρό. 

Καὶ τὸ κόκκινο ἡ φύσις 

Τὸ συγκέρασεν ἐπίσης 

Μ᾿ ἕνα χρῶμ᾽ aompovdepo. 
Ἢ μυρτιὰ τῆς ᾿Αφροδίτης 
Εἰς τὸ πράσινο κλαδί της, 
Μέσ᾽ σ᾽ τὰ φύλλα τὰ χλωρά 
Ὅλα κάτασπρα, σὰν χιόνι, 
Τὰ λουλούδια της φυτρόνει 
Τ᾽ ἀνθηρά, καὶ τρυφερά. 

Καὶ ὁ Δίας ὁ μεγάλος. 

Γιὰ τῆς Δήδας του τὸ κάλλος 
Κύκνος γίνηκε μιὰ φορά. 

Ν᾽ ἀπόδειξ᾽ εἰς κάθε μέρος 
"Aampas τρίχαις θέλ᾽ ὁ [Ἔρως 


\ a ΄ ‘ / ! 
Sav τοῦ κύκνου τὰ prepa! 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


Τὸ λοιπὸν Key ὅσο θέλει, 
"As ἀσπρίζω δὲν μὲ μέλει, 
Παντελώς δὲν μὲ λυπᾷ" 
Ὅτι ὅσο πάντ᾽ ἀσπρίζω, 
Toco πλέον νοστιμίζω, 


Too ὁ ἴΕρως μ᾽ ἀγαπᾷ. 


THE NIGHTINGALE. 


, / 
Kw’ ἀηδονάκι μου Kano, 
7 \ / 3 Ν , 
Kiva καὶ maye στο γιαλο. 
\ \ ~ 4 
Τὴν ἀκριβὴ ποῦ ξεύρεις, 
Νὰ πᾷς νὰ μὲ τὴν εὕρῃς " 
a πᾷς νὰ με τὴν εὕρῃς 
Ν ἈΝ \ Ν Ν ? 
Καὶ σὰν τὴν βρῇς va τὴν ἰδῆς 
3 n \ a 
Apyiva κεῖ va κελαδῆῇς 
\ \ Ν ’ 
Γλυκὰ γλυκὰ με χαρι 
\ ΄ \ Ν / 
Na σκύψῃ va σε παρῃ 
37 3 ᾽ , / + 4 
Avo ἐρωτήσῃ τὲσ εσὺ; 
\ [4 Ν ἢ +59 \ 7 
Καὶ ποιὸς σε στέλνει ἀπ᾿ τὸ νησί; 
> Ν 5 a 
Eire, πῶς εἶμαι Sapo 
Ν ’ 
Πουλι στεναγμοφόρο ! 
a ἘΣ ΟΣ ’ IA A 
ITas ὁ ἀφέντης μου εδώ 
‘ Λ \ Ἃ 
Με στέλνει va σε τραγουδώ" 
\ / \ / 
Ta παθὴ pov va κλαΐγω 
Ν Λ \ 3 \ / 
Με μέλος va σ᾽ Ta λέγω. 
7 i ’ 
ὕστερα σκύψε ταπεινὰ 
Ν ’ 4 ’ 
Kat λάλησέ την ovyava, 
ν Φ 3 3 \ , 
Kat ὄρκισ᾽ την σ᾽ τὰ καλλὴη 
\ ’ \ Χ , 
Στὸν κόρφο va σὲ βάλῃ" 
¥ ᾽ , > ‘ A 
Ay αηδονάκι μ᾽ Sev Bacto 


74 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


\ \ a 3 ’ 
Θὰ σὲ τὸ πῶ, Εἶσαι πιστό; 
3 \ / 

Ἐπίβουλο μὴ γένης 


\ A »"“" 2 7 
Στὸν κῆπον ποῦ ἐμπαίνεις. 


BACCHI LAUDES. 


“Ὅταν πίνω τὸ κρασάκι 
Στὸ χρυσό μου ποτηράκι 
Καὶ ὁ νοῦς μου ζαλισθῇ. - 
Τότ ἀρχίζω καὶ χορεύω, 
Καὶ γελώ καὶ χωρατεύω, 
K’ ἡ ζωή μ᾽ εὐχαριστεῖ. 
Τότε παύουν ἡ φροντίδες 
Τότε σβύνουν ἡ ἐλπίδες 
Tote φεύγουν οἱ καπνοΐ. 
Κ᾽ ἡ καρδιά μου γαληνίζει, 
Καὶ τὸ στῆθός μου ἀρχίζει 
Ν᾽ ἀνασαίνῃ ν᾿ ἀναπνῇ. 
Γιὰ τὸν κόσμον δὲν μὲ μέλει, 
"As yupify ὅπως θέλει, 

Τὸ κρασάκι μου νὰ ζῇ. 

Ἢ κανάτα νὰ μὴ στύψῃ ‘ 
"Ar τὸ πλάγι νὰ μὴ λείψῃ 
Ν᾽ ἀποθάνωμε pati ! 

Dionysius Solomos was born in the island of 
Zacyuthos in 1798 (April 8), and died the 21st 
of November, 1857. The following Ode to Lib- 
erty, written by him in the “month of May,” 
1823, is justly admired for its simplicity and 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


75 


imagination, and it has with justice become “The 


It is ee on all 
ae 


National Song of Greece.” 


great national holidays ee 


1: 


Σὲ γνωρίζω ἀπὸ τὴν κόψει \f) 
Tov σπαθιοῦ τὴν τρομερή, 
Σὲ γνωρίζω ἀπὸ τὴν ὄψι, 


“7 ? 
- 
΄ 


vy, 4 εἶ 
ξεν : 


4p , 
AS. 


᾿᾽Ποῦ μὲ Bia μετράει τὴν γῆ. 


2. 


"At τὰ κόκκαλα βγαλμένη 


Τῶν Ἑλλήνων τὰ ἱερὰ, 


Κ \ 3 Ν a 3 ὃ tui 
ab cay πρωτα ανὸρειωμενῆη, 


Χαῖρε, ὦ χαῖρε, ᾿Ελευθεριά f 


3. 


b a ’ 3 a 
Εκεῖ μέσα ἐκατοικοῦσες, 


Πικραμμένη, ἐντροπαλὴ, 


5 oe , 3 a 
K  éva στόμα axaptepovaes 


¥ , Ν a 3 a 
ExXa wars va σοῦ 17. 


4, 


"Apyete ν᾽ ἄλθῃ ἐκείνη ἡ ᾽μέρα, 


. 9 “. \ 
Kat ταν ὅλα σιωπηλα, 


Γιατὶ τὰ ᾽σκιαζε ἡ φοβέρα 


Ν ς Ψ e / 
Καὶ ta 'πλακονε ἡ σκλαβια. 


5. 


Avotvyns ! II apnyopia 


Μόνη σοῦ ἔμενε va λὲς 


Περασμένα μεγαλεῖα 


Καὶ διηγῶντας τα νὰ κλαῖς. 


Sr, 


f 


Ὅς" 
ἊΝ 
} 


νὴ 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


6. 
Ν » vA QA ᾽ , 
Καὶ ἀκαρτερει καὶ axapteper 
A 
Φιλελεύθερην λαλιὰ, 
ae bed , 
“Eva ἐκτύπαε tT ἄλλο χέρι 


3 Ν ? Ν 
Amro τὴν ἀπελπισια. 


i? 


he ’ ΚΜ 
K’ ἔλεες" πότε, a! 


’ , 
mote βγώνω 
Ν , > > -» 
To xehurs utro τσ ερμιαῖς ; 
ΣᾺ , 5 Ν , 
Kat aroxpivovto ἀπὸ πάνω 


Κλάψαις, ἄλυσες, φωναῖς. 


8. 
Τότε ἐσήκονες τὸ βλέμμα 
Μὲς τὰ κλαύματα θολο, 
Καὶ εἰς τὸ ῥοῦχο σου ἔσταζ᾽ αἷμα 
Πλῆθος αἷμα ᾿Ἑλληνικο. 


9." 
Μὲ τὰ ῥοῦχα αἱματωμένα, 
Ξέρω ὅτι ἔβγαινες κρυφὰ, 
Na yupevys εἰς τὰ ξένα 
"ἄλλα χέρια δυνατά ! 


10. 
Μοναχὴ τὸν δρόμο επῆρες 
᾿Εξανάλθες μοναχή" 
Δὲν εἶν᾽ εὔκολαις ἡ θύραις, 


᾿Εὰν ἡ χρεία ταῖς κουρταλῇ. 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


ΤΙ: 


"άλλος σοῦ ἔκλαψε εἰς τὰ στήθια, 


> > 2 ’ > ’ 
AXX ἀναστασιν Kappta, 


"Andros σοῦ ἔταξε βοήθεια, ψ 


Καὶ σὲ ᾽γέλασε φρικτά. 


12. 
άλλοι, ὠϊμέ ! σ᾽ τὴν συμφορά σου 
« ‘oer / Ν 
Οποῦ ἐχαίροντο πολύ, 
᾽ὕ > By 4 Ν ’ 
Σύρε ν avpys τὰ παιδιὰ σου, 


Σύρε, ἐλέγαν οἱ σκληροί ! 


ΤῊΣ 
΄ 3 , Ν᾿ ’ 
, Φεύγει οπίσω τὸ ποδάρι, 
Καὶ ὁλογλήγορο πατεῖ 
Ν Ν / > Ν 7 
Η τὴν πέτρα, ἢ τὸ χορτάρι, 


Ποῦ τὴν δόξα σοῦ ἐνθυμεῖ. 


14. 
Ταπεινότατη σοῦ γέρνει 
Ἢ τρισάθλια κεφαλὴ 
Σὰν πτωχοῦ ‘row θυροδέρνει, 


Κ᾽ εἶναι βάρος του ἡ ζωή. 


15. 
, > Ν φ 5 ? 4 
Nai! adda twpa ἀντιπαλεῦει 
/ / Ninn ih , 
Kade τέκνο σου με ὁρμὴ, 
A : , , ἐδ 
Ποῦ ἀκατάπαυστα γυρεύει 


Ἤ τὴν νίκη ἤ τὴν θανή. 


{{ 


78 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


16. 
"Am τὰ κόκκαλα βγαλμένη 
Τῶν ᾿ Ἑλλήνων τὰ ἱερὰ, 
Καὶ ᾿σὰν πρῶτα ἀνδρειωμένη, 


Χαῖρε, ὦ χαῖρε, ᾿Ελευθεριά ! 


17; 
Μόλις cide τὴν ὁρμὴν σου 
Ὃ Οὐρανὺς, ποῦ γιὰ ta ἐχθροὺς 
Εἰς τὴν γῆν τὴν μητρικὴν σου 
a > δῇ Ν Ν 
Ετρεφ ἀνθια καὶ καρποὺς. 


18. 
᾿Εγαλήνευσε" καὶ ἐχύθη 
Καταχθόνια μιὰ βοή. 

Καὶ τοῦ 'Ῥήγα σου ἀπεκρίθη 


Πολεμόκραχτη ἡ φωνή. 


19. 
ἽΟλοι οἱ τόποι σου σ᾽ ἐκράξαν; 
Χαιρετῶντας σε θερμὰ, 
Καὶ τὰ στόματα ἐφωνάξαν 


/ / 
"Oca αἰσθάνετο ἡ καρδιά! 


20. 

9 ἊΝ 
E¢wvatave ὡς T ἀστέρια 

a? , Ν \ \ 
Tov Ἰονίου καὶ ta νησιὰ, 
Κ Ἀ 3 , \ / 

αἱ ἐσηκωσανε τὰ χέρια 

\ \ \ 
Iva va δείξουνε χαρὰ. 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 79 


21. 
Sap? of ᾽ ἢ ἢ , 
Μ᾿ ὅλον mov vat ἀλυσωμένο 
Ν / Ν 
Τὸ καθένα τεχνικᾶ, 
FS \ , 7 
Καὶ εἰς τὸ μετωποὸ γραμμένο 


Ἔχει" ψεύτρα ᾿Ελευθεριά. 


22, 
᾿Γκαρδιακὰ, χαροποιήθη 
Καὶ τοῦ Βάσιγκτον ἡ γῆ (the land of Washington) 
Καὶ τὰ σίδερα ἐνθυμήθη 


3 A Ν Μ Ν 3 4 
Ποῦ την edevav καὶ avn. 


29. 
3 > Ν ’ὔ , 
An τον πύργον tov φωνάζει, 
Σὰ \ re Ν lal 
a va NEN σε χαιρετῶ, 
Ν Ν / ’ 
Καὶ τὴν χῆτην tov τινάζει 


Ν τ ᾽’ 
Το Δεοντάρι τὸ Ϊσπανο. 


Ξ 24, ἷ 
᾿Ελαφιάσθη τῆς ᾿Αγγλίας 

Τὸ θη δῆ. καὶ σέρνει εὐθὺς 
Κατὰ τ᾽ ἄκρα τῆς 'Ρουσσίας 


Τὰ μουγκρίσματα το᾽ ὀργῆς. 


25. 
Ei Ν J , , 
is TO κίνημα του δείχνει, 
a \ / 3 
Πῶς ta μέλη εἶν᾽ δυνατὰ. 
Κ Ν 3 A b 7] Ν A e7 
au εἰς Tou Διγαίου To κῦμα ῥίχνει 
\ yt hid 
Mia σπιθοβαλὴη ματιὰ. 


~ 


80 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


These twenty-five stanzas will suffice to give 
to the reader an idea of this unequalled poem. 
The poem is composed of one hundred and fifty- 
eight stanzas. 

Besides his “‘Ode to Liberty,” Solomos wrote 
a lyric poem on the death of Lord Byron, of one 
hundred and sixty-six stanzas, commencing as 


follows: — 
: 1 


* Aevbepua, γιὰ ᾽λίγο Tae 

Na χτυπᾷς μὲ τὸ oral. 

Τώρα σίμωσε καὶ κλᾶψε 

Εἰς τοῦ Μπάϊρον (Byron) τὸ κορμί. 


2. . 

Kai κατόπι as ἀκλουθοῦνε 
Ὅσοι ἐπράξανε λαμπρά ! 
᾿Αποπάνου του ἄς χτυποῦνε 


ἢ ES 
Movov στήθια npwika. 


8. 

a δ." 
Πρῶτοι ἄς ἔλθουνε οἱ Σ᾽ ουλιώτες 
Καὶ ἀπ᾽ τὸ Δείψανον αὐτό 
ΜΝ / ε : , 

As μακραίνουνε οἱ προδοτες 
/ A A 
Καὶ ἀπ᾽ ta λογία ὁποῦ θὰ To. 
4. 
4 
φλάμπουρα, ὅπλα τιμημενα, 
ἐ a Ν ἈΝ a 
As γυρθοῦν KaTa τὴ γῆ, 
Καθὼς ἤτανε γυρμένα 
An / Ν / 
Eis τοῦ Μάρκου τὴ θανή. 
ρ n ” 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. $1 


2 \ / , 
Ποῦ εἶν θα λενε σαστισμένοι 
/ Ἂς ὦ : ‘ 
To Acovtapt τὸ Αγγλικο; 
3 ἐν hes 
Eivat ἡ χῃτη Tov πεσμενη, 


Καὶ τὸ μούγκρισμα BovBo..... : 


Solomos wrote, besides these two poems we 
have noticed, many other songs and sonnets, all 
evincing the creative power and masterly genius | 
of the poet. The following sonnet, entitled “ Ἢ 
EavOovha” (‘The Golden-haired Girl), is sung by 
young and old in Greece : — 


1. 
Τὴν εἶδα τήν Ἐανθοῦλα 
Τὴν εἶδα “apes ἀργὰ, 
᾿Ποῦ ἐμπῆκε σ᾽ τὴ βαρκοῦλα 


\ / 2 \ / 
Na πάῃ ao τὴν ξενητειά, 


2. 
3 va 2 2h 
Ἐφούσκονε τ΄ ἀέρι 
/ \ 
Aevxotata πανία, 
pS, \ Ν 7 
“Ὥσαν τὸ περιστέρι, 


9 = / A , 
Ποῦ ἁἅπλονει ta φτερά. 


3. 


᾿Εστέκονταν οἱ φίλοι 
“Μὲ λύπη, μὲ χαρὰ, 
Καὶ αὐτὴ μὲ τὸ μαντίλι (handkerchief) 


Ἁ ΕΣ ΕΝ 
Tous αἀποχαιρετᾳ. 


82 


AA 


5 4 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


4, 
Καὶ τὸ χαιρετισμό της 
᾿Εστάθηκα νὰ ἰδῶ, 
“Ως ᾿᾽ποῦ ἡ πολλὴ μακρότης 


a γ΄ Ἢ 4 t hed 
Mov το 'κρυψε καὶ avto. 


5. 
= ὀλίγο, σ᾽ ὀλιγάκι 
Δὲν ἤξερα νὰ ra, 
"Av ἔβλεπα πανάκι, 


Ἤ τοῦ πελάγου ἀφρό. 


6. 
ee a , Λ 
Καὶ adov ravi, μαντίλι 
/ > \ 
"Exa0n σ᾽ τὸ νερό, 
‘ 
᾿Εδάκρυσαν οἱ φίλοι 


᾿Εδάκρυσα κ᾽ ἐγώ. 


ἡ. 
x ’ ΝΥ a] 
Aev κλαίγω τὴ βαρκοῦλα 
ἂν τ ἊΣ Ν Ν 
Aev κλαίγω Ta Travia, 
43 \ a 
Mov, κλαίγω τὴν Ἐανθοῦλα, 


a / > \ / 
Ποῦ πάει o τὴν Eevntia. 


bee. 

Δὲν κλαίγω τὴ βαρκοῦλα 
Μὲ τὰ λευκὰ πανιὰ, 

Mor κλαίγω τὴν Ἐανθοῦλα 
Μὲ τὰ ξανθὰ μαλλιά. 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 83 


Aristoteles Valaorites, who died twelve or fif- 
teen years ago, was ‘‘a voluminous poet,” full of 
power and imagination. The following ‘‘Nexpuxy 
ὠδή " may serve as an example : — 


Τὴν αὐγὴ μὲ τὴ δροσοῦλα ἐξεφύτρωσ᾽ ἕνα ῥόδο 

Τὴν αὐγὴ μὲ τὴ δροσοῦλα ἐμαράθηκε τὸ ῥόδο ! 

Γιὰ μιὰν ἄνοιξι μονάχα στὰ περίφανα κλαριά του 

3 ΄ etna , y+ \ \ 4 
Erpayovdnce tT ἀηδόνι ἔκαμε καὶ τὴ φωλιά TOV... . 
Σὰν ἡ ἄνοιξι γυρίσῃ καὶ τ᾽ ἀηδόνι σὰ γυρίσῃ 


Τὴ φωλιά του ποῦ θὰ στήσῃ; .... 


Υ͂ » e , A δ 3 3 / 
Ὅταν eByawe ἡ σέληνη, ὅταν eByaway τ ἀστέρια 
Ν 3 , Ν 3 A A [2 ’ A / 
Με ἀγάπη τὸ εθεωροῦσαν, τοῦ atrdwvave τὰ χέρια. 
N Stee h WS ey Bice N Ν 7 Ν ΟΝ 
Σὰν νὰ ἠθέλαν ἐκεῖ ἐπάνω νὰ τὸ πάρουν τὸ καῦὔμεένο, 
¥ a 9 > 9.9.7 x. “ 
ἔλεγαν πῶς εἶν ἀδέρφι, ἔλεγαν πῶς πλανημένο 
T 2 A Ν “ δι. 8 Ν θὰ 3 , 
ovpavou τὸ μονοπώτι T oppavo Ga εἶχε χάσῃ 
"2 ! > lA ] yf Ι > / Ι ’ὔ A 1 A 
χ' aotepia: wy! aatepia! γρήγορα ποῦ θὰ σᾶς 
ee 
φθάσῃ : 
RS a + te i , Ν / ‘ 
Κὶ ἀποιοι ποῦ ἤκουσαν τ andovt στὸ κλαρίτου va λαλῇ. 
‘ 3 bes 3 A , a | a 
Εἶπαν Sev εἶναι τραγοῦδι, wupodoys εἷν ἐκεῖ... 
Soe 3 N 3 , a ᾽ , a 2 a 
Ki ὅσοι εἶδαν τὰς ἀκτίνας τῶν ἀστέρων τοῦ οὐρανοῦ 
\ a ‘ / ‘ Ν ΟΣ a 
_ Na γελοῦν va παιγνιδίξζουν we τὰ φύλλα τοῦ ovpavov ᾿ 
Bf ‘ a 3 rn yx i] Ν 3 a a 
Eirave ta φῶτα εκεῖνα ay! Sev εἶναι τῆς χαρᾶς 


3 τ 3 Ν aA A n 
Εἶπαν ὅτι εἶναι ta φῶτα νεκρικῆς κεροδοσᾶς. 


Τὴν αὐγὴ μὲ τὴ δροσοῦλα ἐξεφύτρωσε ἕνα ῥόδο 
Τὴν αὐγὴ μὲ τὴ δροσοῦλα ἐμαράθηκε τὸ ῥόδο 


B4 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


XN once ee. e S - , 
Μὴν ἐπέρασεν εκεῖθεν ὁ Bopias ὁ παγωμένος 
Ν > / e e 
Kai σὰν εἶδε τέτοιο ῥόδο ὁ σκληρὸς ἐρωτεμένος 
e Ν 
Αρπαξε τὴ μυρωδιώ του 


Ν Ν A ast , 
Καὶ τὴν πῆρε ota prepa tov; .... 
° e . e a 


Ν Ν 2 Μ 3 
Aev τὸ ξεύρω ! Κάποιος εἶπε ὅτι ἐψές τὸ βράδυ βράδυ 
2 ” N ΄ ΝΝ \ ‘ N ἃ. .% 
Εἶδε κάποιονε va φεύγῃ σὰν καπνὸς μὲ τὸν ἀγέρα. 
> + , 3 a δ . ΄ N , 
Τ᾽ ἀλογὸ του ἦτο μαῦρο σὰν τῆς νύχτας τὸ σκοτάδι 
‘ : er. , Ν. 
K’ ἐλαφρὸ σὰν τὸν αἰθέρα, 
Εἰ Ν ’ὔ 3 a °’ , 4 
ls TO χέρι του ἐβαστοῦσε, ἀχαμνὸ ξεγυμνωμένο 
σ es ͵ 
Eva ῥόδο μαραμμένο. 
» a A 
Orav ἔφευγε ἀκλουθῶντας τοῦ πελάου τὴν ἄκρη ἄκρη 
” > σ τὴν 
Ay δὲν ἔχυν ἕνα δάκρυ, 
wf. a A Ν 4 , 
Movov ἔλεγε στὸ κῦμα, ποῦ τὸν βλέπει καὶ τραβιεταυ, 
κε ’ὔ , 3 ¢ 5 , 
Kupata μου εἰπέτε, εὐπέετε 
‘ a> Κ΄ 2) ’ , ΝὟ , 
Ζὲν εἶν᾽ ὥμορφο τὸ ῥόδο ;" Μόνον λέγει στὸ χορτάρι 
A 3 Ν 
Ποῦ ὑποκάτω at τὸ ποδάρι 
A Ἀ 9 + : ae “x 
Tod ἀλόγου tov πεθαίνει. ““Δεν εἶμ ἄξιος κ΄ eyo 
7 Ν a 2). 
Τέτοιο ῥόδο va φορῶ; 
a / 5», Ν / 
Τέτοια ῥόδα καὶ τοῦ Χάρου κάνουν apopha ta στήθια 


> Ot , , 
Εἶναι ἀλήθεια, civ ἀλήθεια 


A very popular poet of Greece is Zalocostas, 
who has been dead some fifteen years or more, 
—a voluminous translator from Italian poets, as 
Professor Geldart states, and, as an original writer, 
full of power and imagination. The following 
may serve as an example: — 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


3 , a 3 , , 
Q πλήρης, σεπτῶν ἀναμνήσεων χώρα, 
Φ “Ὁ lal 9S “ Ν 
γῆ κλεινῶν ἄθλων, ὦ γῆ ποθητὴ, 
Τὸ αἷμα ποιοῦσα ἡμῶν ! διὰ τί 
γ.5 N N \ ¥ Ν ; 
Μ' ὀργὴν καὶ pe ἄλγος σε βλέπομεν τωρα; 
᾿Αλλοίως, φεῦ, ἄλλην σ᾽ ἐβλέπομεν ὅτε 
3 an Ν J ς A ͵ 
Ayaves καὶ μὸ χθοι ὑπῆρχον KOLVOL, 
Κ᾽ ἐπίθετον ἄλλο δὲν εἴχομεν 7 
“Ελλήνων βλαστοὶ καὶ Χριστοῦ στρατιῶται. 


Ὦ 3 + , -“ ΄ ἢ 
αἶσχος, ὦ νόμοι σκληροῦ πεπρωμένου ! 
ΓῚ 7 3 A 3» “5 ’ 

"QQ μάρτυρες, ποία ἐπῆλθ᾽ ἐποχὴ ! 

Ta / ς a 3 Ν ὃ A 

a τέκνα ὑμῶν ὀορφανα, δυστυχῆ, 
ες / xy ee / A / 
Qs στίγμα τὸ ὄνομα φερουν τοῦ ξένου. 

" 7 , 4 
Kis ξόφεον χάος τὰ ῥεύματα χύνων. 

“ ΄ Ἀ ¥ a ne 
Τῶν δούλων καὶ μαύρων τοῦ ἔθνους στυγμῶν, 
TI , + τ / ‘ a 

apnpxXeT ὁ χρόνος Papus στεναγμῶν, 

Ν > Κ >? ἥκο- τς - ᾽ὔ 4 
Καὶ τ ovo αὐτὸ τῶν προγόνων μας σβύνων. 
? 7 \ a 3 > » » ’ ἃ e 
Ev πρωτοῖς τὸ πῦρ ἐξερῥάγ εἰς τὸ Σοῦλι 
3 a lal a 
Exet ot γενναῖοι πατέρες ἡμῶν 
Ἔ ΄ , \ ἢ , 
κραύγασαν πάντες μὲ μέγαν θυμόν" 
3 ’ 4 Ν yy a 
Adnraca, τρέμε" Sev εἰμεθα δοῦλοι. 
A > a 
Κτυπᾶτε ἀνδρεῖοι Φωναὶ apatovwv 
| , 3 ’ὔ \ X\ 
ντήχουν ἐν μάχαις πυρὸς μεταξυ., 
lal 9 PE Ν 
Κτυπᾶτε! « ἡ Χαΐδω μὲ ξίφος ὀξύ 
ΤΙ / ἄνα , / U 
pavov τὰς τάξεις μαχίμων γειτόνων. 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


Τὶς ἦν ὁ κακοῦργος ἐξ ov ὀλεθρία 
᾿Εξῆλθεν ἡ πρώτη ἐρίδων σπορά; 
"QQ, εἴθε μελλόντων αἰώνων ἀρὰ ~ 
Εἰς τὴν κεφαλήν του νὰ πέσῃ βαρεῖα ! 
"As ἦναι παντοῦ βδελυκτόν T ὄνομα του 
> ’ὔ τ Ν ‘\ an 
Atapayov ὕπνον va μὴ κοιμηθῇ 
’ Ν Ν A 
Πλησίον του δὲ τις va μὴν εὑρεθῇ 
Παρήγορος ἄλγους ἐν ὥρα θανάτου ! 
Εἰς τοῦ τύμβον ἐκεῖνον πλησίον 
ἮἯἮἯ / θ Ν / / ἃ 
νεῴχθη we πάταγον χάσμα 
Καὶ τῆς γῆς ἐκ τῶν σπλάγχνων τῶν κρύων 
᾿Ετινάχθη δεκώπηχυ φάσμα. 
"A! δὲν ἦτο τοῦ νοῦ μου ἀπάτη, 
a a / 
Μήτε φροῦδον τοῦ φόβου pov πλάσμα. 
\ / ᾽ ’ 
Βλοσυρον περιέστρεφε pate, 
a 3 ξ 
Καὶ λαμπάδα φλογῶν διαπύρων 
Μὲ τὴν ἄσαρκον χεῖρα ἐκράτει. 
᾿Εθερμάνθη ἐπ᾽ ἄμετρον γύρον 
ρμανθη PET RAPHY UP i 
“ Ν A c 
Ὃ αἰθὴρ, καὶ ἡ γῆ, καὶ ot λίθοι, 
Ν ¢€ / 3 Ν al / 
Kai ἡ κόνις αὑτὴ τῶν μαρτύρων. 
e .Ψ . . " Φ 
. , 5 
Tous γενναίους μας μάρτυρας εἶδα, 
Ὅσοι ἔπεσον πίστεως φίλοι 
Διὰ μίαν θανόντες πατρίδα. 
Κατηφεῖς, σκυθρωποὶ καὶ ὀργίλοι, 
Κατεδείκνυον μέλη θλασμένα 
Καὶ πληγῶν διαχαίνοντα χείλη. 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. ΞΘ 


Of the so-called “ Kleptic Ballads,” the pride 
of modern Greece, the following may serve as a 


specimen : — 
THE BURIAL OF DEMOS. 


f 3 f. Sips a , 
Ὃ ἥλιος ἐβασίλευε, κ᾿ ὁ Δῆμος διατάξει" 
/ 4 ᾽ \ / 
'Σύρτε, παιδιὰ μου, σ᾽ τὸ νερὸν, opt va hat ἀπόψε. 
Ν Ν ὔ > > , / 3 , ’ 
Καὶ συ, αμπράκη μ᾽ ἀνεψιε, κάθου ἐδώ κοντὰ μου" 
δι ἂν ’ , \ 9 / 
Na- τ appata μου hopece, va ἦσαι καπιτάνος " 
Ν a , / \ » / 
Kai σεῖς, παιδιά μου, πάρετε τὸ ἔρημο σπαθί μου, 
/ / / rn 
IIpacwa κόψετε κλαδιὰ, στρῶστέ μου va καθίσω, 
Ν ’ \ \ Ν 3 3 , 
a τε TOV πνευμα . 
K z {ερ ' ἱ ὰ τικὸ νὰ μ' ἐξομολογήσῃ 
a a ἂν / 
Na τὸν εἰπῶ Ta. κρίματα ποῦ ἔχω καμωμένα, 
/ ¥-> Om / > δὴ / ‘ 
T'piavta ypovt apaptwdos, Kk εἴκοσι πέντε KAEHTNS " 
N , » 9 , Coot ᾽ 
Καὶ topa w ἦρθε θάνατος, καὶ θέλω v ἀποθάνω. 
’ὔ Ν ΄ ΄ ᾿ ᾿ς 4 
Kapete τὸ κιβούρι μου πλατύ, ψηλὸ va γένῃ, 
\ 7,9 9 AN κ ms Ν 
Νὰ στέκ ὀρθὸς νὰ πολεμῶ, καὶ δίπλα va γεμίζω. 
25.7 S / N ee ἢ 
Κ᾽ ἀπὸ τὸ μέρος τὸ δεξὶ ἀφῆστε παραθύρι, 
, a ar Ἂν N 
Ta χελιδόνια va ῥχωνταῖ, τὴν ἄνοιξιν va φέρουν 
! 


Ν 2 3 / Ν Ν i Ν Ν τὶ 
Καὶ t ἀηδόνια tov καλὸν Mai va με μαθαίνουν : 


Among the numberless and nameless poems of 
the modern Greeks I agree with Professor Geldart 
in saying, that I know nothing in any language 
more beautiful of its kind than the following : — 


3 ba ae A A 

Ets τὸ ῥεῦμα τῆς ζωῆς μου 
Ν / Ν 3 3 a 

Ava Ti νὰ o ἀπαντησω; 
a a ἀμ eS. 9 

At eue ἀφ ov dev noo 


Διατί νὰ σὲ ἰδῶ;.... 


88 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


Ν τ «Ψ > 4 
Καὶ με exapes ἁπαύστως 
‘\ Ν ¢ 
Στεναγμοὺς va ὑποφέρω, 
Ν “ / , 
Καὶ γελᾶς διότι κλαίω, 


Διὰ σὲ καὶ θρηνωδῶ. 


7, , »” ἈΝ , 
Στέρξε, κάμε ἢ va Crow 
¥ κ ͵΄ ς , 
H va παύσῃ ἡ πνοὴ μου" 
x ᾿ Ν᾿ , 
Iows, tows στὴν θανὴν μου 


Πλέον μεταμεληθῆς. 


de ζ “ e / 
ev ζητῶ, οἱ στεναγμοι μου 
Τὴν καρδίαν σου ν᾿ ἑλκύσουν" 
Θέλω μόνον, ὅταν σβύσουν 
Τῆς ζωῆς μου αἱ στιγμαί, 
di Ν 
“Eva στεναγμὸν θρηνώδη 
Ὥ δ » 9 a 

ς χαιρετισμὸν ν ἀφήσης, 

Ν 2 Ν 7 Ν 7 
Καὶ εἰς tov τάφον μου va χύσης 
"Ev σου δώκρυ ov ἐμέ. 


A modern Greek, Mr. Apostolos Arsakios, who, 
I believe, is still living at Athens, when but eigh- 
teen years old wrote an ‘“Idyl” which closely 
resembles the style of Theocritus. Mr. Arsakios 
wrote this ‘‘Idyl” to congratulate Napoleon the 
First for a son which was born to the emperor, 
but we really believe that the main object of the 
author was to induce the conqueror of Austerlitz 
to help the Greeks, who were then striving for 
independence. ‘The following lines may give an 
idea of his style: — 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


EIATAAION. 


Θύρσις καὶ Δαάφνις. 
ΘύρσιΞ. 
Πᾷ σε, γέρων, ἀδρανεῖς φορέοντι πόδες τὸν axidvov ; 
Ila δ᾽ ap κεκμακὼς, μέγα T ἀσθμαίνων ἀλάλασαι, 


Καὶ τοσσοῦτος ἱδρὼς περιδίδρομε σῶμα γεραιόν ; 


Δάφνις. 
Rw 3 NY ἃ 
Πάντοσ᾽ ἐμὸν, ποιμὰν, wav σκίδνατ᾽ ἔνθα καὶ ἔνθα 
3 / 
Εκπάγλῳ θορύβῳ, νεμέθω τε πόας τε λελαθὸς " 
me \ , > x 
Knyov δὲ βραδύπουν μόλις ὥρμασ᾽ ἥλυσιν ἄρθρων, 
an “. 3 ἧς 
Σκίμπωνι σκολιῶ σκηρίπτων γῆρας ἀφαυρὸν, 
Ν - ͵7ὔ / 
Ev0a καὶ ἔνθ᾽ ὁ γέρων μεθέπων φυξήλιδα ποίμναν, 
a Ἵ 7 ‘ >? 
Καὶ ταραχᾶς παγάν" κίκυς μὰν οὐκ ἔτι πρόσσω 
ΝΥ / / / Lal n 
Hureda βαινέμεναι, τρομέοντέ τε γυια γεραιῶ 
Ν ' > + , 
᾿Εμμόχθῳ ye δρόμω: Ta δὲ μοι πάντ᾽ ἔννεπε, τέκνον 
7 3 Μ ? Ν 
Θύρσι, πόθεν βόμβος με, πόθεν δ᾽ a ἔκπαγλος axa, 
, a A 93 a 
Χάλκειον προλιποῦσα δαφοινᾶς βρόχθον Evvevs, 


3 / Sr REP, ᾿Ξ ’, Ν , : , 
: EwBpepet GENLOS ; TLAPAY® μὰν TAVTA TAPATTEL ; 


Θύρσις. 
᾿Αλλὰ σὲ γὰρ δὴ ταῦτα, πάτερ φίλε, μὴ θορυβούντων, 
Γώλλων χάρματος ἐργ,, ἰδ ὅσους Γάλλοισιν ἀδελφοὺς 
‘Prrxavov ξυνέδεσσε μέγας φὼς χειρὶ βαρείᾳ. 


Δάφνις. 
, Ἁ ͵ 4 7] +S 9 ’ 
Τόσσων pav λέγε, Θύρσι, τί τοῦτιον εὐφροσυνάων ;. 
> , ,ὔ 3 , / 
Ov μὰν τοι νίκησιν ἀγαλλόμενοι κροτέοντι" 
Ν \ r 3 / A / 
Nixau μὲν yap τοῖς δ᾽ ἐθάδες νῦν ἠδὲ βέβαιοι, 


O x 7 ᾽ n , > / ΕΥ @ 
VOE TLS OLOEL Τοσσον ayaKpoTov ἄσπετον. δος. 


89 


90 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


ay 
~ 


Θύρσις. 
a / A > 
Οὐδέ τι τοιοῦτον. Τάδε viv, φίλος, ἄῤῥεν ἐγείρει 


/ A 
Ναπολέοντι τέκος δαμάρατον γ᾽ ἀναθῆλαν " 


Δάφνις. 


᾿Αλλὰ τὺ γὰρ δὴ τοῦτο, πόθεν, πῶς, ὦ ᾽γαθὲ, ἔγνως ; 
oP θη D Y Ὑ Ὁ} 


Ovpors. 
Δείμακα μὲν κῃγὼν, καθ᾽ ὑδρηλὸν μᾶλα νόμευον 
Αἰφνίδιος ὅχ᾽ ὁ δοῦπος ἀφίκετο" φαίνετο δ᾽ ἦμες 
Πρᾶτα μάχας τέκμωρ, διά τε κρότον οὐρανομήκη 
Kai βλοσυρὸν πλατάγημα * τὸ μὰν βομβεῦον ἐκεῖνο 
Καὶ πολύφλοισβον ἔλειφ᾽ ὑσμάνας, χάρμα δὲ μᾶλλον 
Φράσδεν" ois γῶν μοι Κωρύδων ev’ τῷδε νομεύειν 
Mipvev, ἐγὼν εὐθὺς δὲ περάσσας λαῖτμα θαλάσσας 
Κραιπνὰ wan ὥστε νέος (τόδε γὰρ νεότητος ὄνειαρ) 
᾿ Ἤλυθον ἐσ νᾶσον τὰν γείτονα, ἔνθα θριάσδεν 
Δᾶμος ἅπας ἕλλην Κερκύρας φαίνετο χαίρων. 
Οὐδὲ μεταλλάαν οἷος τ᾽ ἦν χάρματος αὐτῷ 
Τοὔτιον ἀῤῥήτω" τὸ γὰρ οὐκ οἷον τ᾽ ἀβακέμμεν 
Τοὐπιφανὲς wovto* Boas δὲ κατ᾽ ἠδ᾽ ἀλαλατὼς 
Καὶ κότον ἀλλάλοισιν ἐόντα τίν ὥλεσε χάρμα, 
Παντᾷ δ᾽ ἦν φίλτρον, παντᾷ γάνος ἠδ᾽ ἴα γῆρυς. 
“Zon ΝΑΠΟΛΕΩΝ ! Zon βασιλεὺς δὲ ὁ Ῥώμας "ἢ" 
Κράσδεκον μεγάλως, πέλως" δ᾽ εἰς ἠέρα πέμπον" 
K’ ἔγνων, Aadvi, μόγις, ὅτι δὴ ταῦτ᾽ ἄῤῥεν ἐγείρει 
Ναπολέοντι τέκος, ‘Papas βασιλεὺς. ἀναθῆλαν " 
Παντᾷ δ᾽ εὐρυτάταν τριπλᾶ par ἠδὲ τετραπλᾶ 


ΟΣ »] ΡΣ 
Τύσσα τι χάρματοςςἔργα κατ᾽ ἀργὰν γίνετ᾽ "Ανακτος. 
χαρμ PY ρ 


~ 


MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 91 


Another modern Greek, Mr. Demetrius Schoinas, 
᾿ composed a ‘Pindaric Ode,” in April, 1811, for 
the purpose of congratulating Napoleon the First 
for the son that was born to him: — 


Στροφη y! 
rn ’ 

Δίπεν § avy Θῶκον ἔνθα θάασ- 
σε νύγμασι χαρᾶς" 
Ἶριν ἔκ τε ποδώ- 

’ 
νεμον δ᾽, ὠνόμαξεν ᾿Αθανώτως 
> jh? 3 ’ / 
ἐπ᾿ ἀγορανδε καλέσαι, \ 
2 \ ow @ ae ee. , Fi e3% 
amo ὃ ὦρτο Tay ὠγγελεοισα" ἐπεὶ 
δὲ Διὸς μεθ᾽ ὁμώγυριν ἄλθον ἱε- 

μεθ᾽ ὁμάγυρ 
pav, τοῖσιν pa ἔνεπε παγ- 
/ 3 ’ 
χρυσέῳ ἐν δαπέδῳ 
Ζεύς: παρὰ δ᾽ ἄγγελος ἔ- 
/ 

στα δεξιὸς “Aptepts οἱ 
Ἵστε νῦν Θεοὶ, ἰδὲ τέρ- 


πεσθε" ἁμὸς γὰρ μεγακλεής. 


Writing in “classical Greek” has of late years 
been generally the habit of all educated Greeks. 
The following extract from an essay, “Περὶ τοῦ 
εἰ ἐξῆν μαι ταῖς γυναιξὶ ταῖς δραματικαῖς ἐπιδείξεσι 
παρεῖναι," written by a well-known doctor of 
Athens, may serve as an example: — 


a > / Ia \ 7 / 
Tov ἀρχαίων οὐδὲν περὶ τούτου βέβαιον καταλέελοιπο- 
ς i XN ¢ al 5 / / 3 / 
των, OF νεώτεροι διττὴν ἡμῖν ἰδέαν παρέδωκαν, ἐκ διαμέ- 
ὃ 7 ἰ ε Χ N Fp iw , te 2 ΟῚ 
τρου διάφορον" οἱ μὲν γὰρ αὐτῶν μάλιστα εἰσήγαγον εἰς 


ἈΝ θ / Ν “ « Χ > / > Ν / 
Ta Geatpa Tas γυναικας, οἱ δὲ ἀπέκλεισαν εἰς TO TAVTEAES. 


92 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 


3 . a , v4 Ν Ν a an 
..+. Ev δὲ τῇ Σπάρτῃ, ὅπου καὶ τὸ τῶν γυναικῶν 
a TPS a / 3 a / / 2 r 
φῦλον μερος τῆς πολιτείας Ex TOY νόμου συνίστα, ἐξείναι, 
Ν 2% Mee. ν ? “ 3 “ ? Ν / 
φασὶ, Kal αὑτὰς τὰς εὐγενεστέρας, ov μόνον εἰς TO θέατρον 
> , ? se Ν af e / > / 3 
εἰσιεναι, αλλ, (ὅπερ καὶ τοῦθ ὁμολογουμένως εκείναις ἀπη- 
, Ἁ / Ai a Ἂς. / Ν 
yopeutat ) καὶ χορεύειν ἐπὶ σκηνῆς, Kal ὑποκρίνεσθαι, καὶ 
ἈΝ » ee. 7v- ’ Ν a n aA 
μισθὸν ἐπὶ τούτῳ λαμβάνειν Tapu τοῦ χορηγοῦ. Ταῦτα 
Ν 3 r id N + 2 y+ , a / 
μὲν ἐκεῖνος. Οἱ δὲ ἄλλοι οὐκ ἄξια λόγου ταυτα κρίναν- 
Ν / ς a 2 / Ν / N / 
τες, Kat θεατρίαις ἁπλῶς ἀνοίγουσι TO θεατρον, καὶ τόπον 


2 r > / e / 
αὐταῖς uTrodwoaciv ὡρισμενον. 


Before closing this chapter, a few words are due 
to our contemporaries. The writings of many 
modern Greek prose authors, as, for instance, the 
“Ἱστορία τῆς "Ἑλληνικῆς ἐπαναστάσεως," by Spy- 
ridon Tricupes, and ‘‘ Δοκίμιον ἱστορίας τῆς “EAAn- 
νικῆς γλώσσης, by D. Mavrophredes, are well 
known, and have been reviewed in some of the 
leading English journals. Professor Asopios is 
well known by his “ Εἰσαγωγὴ εἰς SECM OCP and 
Professor Damalas by his “ Περὶ ἀρχῶν. Pap- 
paregopulos’ History of Greece is remarkable, as 
Professor Geldart states, for its clear and simple 
style and the unstudied purity_of its language. 
I close this chapter with the following extract 
from Plutarch’s ‘“ Life of Ceesar,” as translated 
by Mr. A. R. Rangabes, “Εἰς τὴν καθομιλουμένην ἢ 
(in the spoken language), late Greek Ambassador 
in Paris, and well known not only as a scholar 
and archeologist, but also as a poet: — 


; 
~< 
= ΓΔ 


ff « f 2: 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, ὑ 208 
\ ᾧ, 2 te « fy 
ἯΙ, Ὑπό Νὴ λοιπὸν αὕτη ἐφάνη φιλώνδρώπος, καὶ ᾿Ἰόχυρὸς 
ὁ λόγος, ὅστις ἐῤῥέθη περὶ αὐτῆς. Au ὅ, οὐ μόνον οἱ per, 
αὐτὸν ἐγερθέντες παρεδέχοντο τὴν πρότασιν αὐτοῦ, ἀλλὰ 
καὶ πολλοί τῶν προομιλησάντων, ἀρνούμενοι τὰς ἰδίας “ων 
, / Ν 3 , A “ 4 14 
γνώμας, παρεδέχοντο τὴν ἐδικὴν του, ἕως ὅτου ἦλθεν ἡ 
n "és Ν lal / @ 3 / 
σειρώ τοῦ Κάτωνος καὶ τοῦ Κάτλου. Οὗτοι δ᾽ ἠναντιωθη- 
> ¢ A Ν ς id , ‘ ’ τ Ἁ 
σαν μεθ᾽ ὁρμῆς, καὶ ὡς ὁ Κώτων μετὰ λόγου εῤῥιψε καὶ 
¢ / ? 2 a Ν ? ’ 3 2 n / e 
ὑπονοίαν κατ αὑτοῦ, καὶ ἐξανεστὴ κατ αὑτοῦ βιαιως, οἱ 
‘ BA / a Ν Ν nN 
μεν avdpes wapsietncar ὅπως θανατοθῶσι" κατὰ δὲ Tov 
Καίσαρος, ἐν ᾧ p ἐξήρχετο τῆς βρυλήξι πολλοὶ τῶν νέων τῶν 
φρουρούντων τὸν Κικέρωνα τότε ὁρμήσαντες, ἔστρεψαν 
ΚΞ ἃ / > Ἄν. τιν ὧν 2 Ν / 
γυμνά ta ξίφη Kat αὐτοῦ. ᾿Αλλὰ λέγεται ὅτι ὁ Kov- 
/ 7 / + AE Ν ~ , Ν 
ρίων, περικαλύψας τοτε αὑτὸν διὰ τῆς τηβεέεννου του, τὸν 
3 , Ν / 7] / / γ 
ἐξήγαγε. Καὶ ὁ Κικέρων, ὅταν οἱ νέοι προσέβλεψαν εἰς 
7s “ x” - oi ἐδ 1 Ὰ y oN 
αὑτὸν, OTL ἔνευσεν aTrodhatixas, φοβηθεὶς τὸν δῆμον, ἢ TOV 
, σ. x Ν 7 a a od 
φόνον ὅλως adixov Kat παράνομον θεωρῶν. Τοῦτο ὅμως 
ν - a , x 3 3 Ἀ Ν \ » 
δὲν ἠξεύρω πῶς ὁ Κικέρων av εἶναι ἀληθὲς, Sev τὸ ἐγραψεν 
τ Ν Ν a / , a CK: 6 
εἰς TOV περὶ τῆς ὑπατείας λόγον του" κατηγορεῖτο ὃ ὕστε- 
“ ᾿ 3 / / ? a 3 / { EE 
pov ὅτι dev ὠφελήθη τότε ἐκ τῆς εὐκαιρίας ἥτις ἀρίστη 
’ 5 ᾽ Ν a / 5 . 9 / 
παρουσιάζετο εἰς αὐτόν κατὰ τοῦ Καίσαρος, ἀλλ ἐδειλίασεν 


ἄπ 4 a , 4 ς , > + Ν 7 
ἐνωπίον τοῦ δήμου, ὅστις υὑπεέρτατως NUVOEL TOV Καίσαρα. 


CHAPTER VIII. 


DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE OLD ATTIC AND THE 
MODERN GREEK. 


Tue only difference that exists between the old 
pure Attic and the modern Greek or common 
dialect, is as follows: — 

The common dialect is a loose Attic with a 
mixture of Macedonian and Alexandrian words. 
It adopts various new forms, as ψεῦσμα, νῖκος, 
νουθεσία, ἐκχύνειν, στήκω, ὀμνύω for ψεῦδος, νίκη, 
νουθέτησις, ἐκχέειν, ἵστημι, ὄμνυμι; It admits va- 
rious poetical words, as αὐθεντεῖν, to lord it ; ἀλέκ- 
τωρ for ἀλεκτρυών; ἔσθω for ἐσθίω; βρέχω, to rain, 
οἷοι; it uses old words in new senses, as συνζ 
στημὶ, I prove; ὀψώνιον, wages; ἐρεύγεσθαι, eloqui ; 
γεννήματα, fruit; λαλιά, language; and it frames 
new words and new compounds, as γρηγορῶ, 
παιδιόθεν, αἱματοχυσία. It ceases to employ the 
dual; entirely abandons the use of the optative 
in oratio obliqua; uses the infinitive instead of the 
future participle after verbs of going, sending, ete. ; 
admits εὐ with the subjunctive, ὅταν, καὶ, ἵνα, 
with the present indicative; and, finally, shows a 


OLD ATTIC AND MODERN GREEK. 95 


tendency to analysis, by using prepositions where 
the case-terminations would eee been originally 
sufficient to express the meaning, and by employ- 
ing the active with ἑαυτὸν instead of the middle. 
( indipaben a ἑαυτὸν--Ξ- ἐταράξατο. See Farrar’ s ‘Greek 
Syntax.”) 7 

The dual number, which does not exist in 
modern Greek, is not found in the AXolic dialect, 
and, in fact, being altogether unnecessary, early — 
begins to vanish and to be treated as quite sub- 
ordinate to the plural. The dual number may be 
termed ‘‘a superfluous exuberance,” adding but 
little force to the language. 

Such being the changes which have passed over 
the Greek language, we still hold that it has lost 
neither the elasticity nor the life of the ancient 
Greek. Her words are not, so to speak, ‘con- 
gealed,” and “void of life,” as are the words 
of the French and —with the exception of the 
German —the words of other languages, which 
retain the meaning once given them. It may 
be said that this produces -indefiniteness and 
want of clearness; but for all that, this is one 
of the strongest proofs of the life of the lan- 
guage. This is the reason why the “New 
Hellenistic,” though somewhat under-a new gar- 
ment, is the traditional language of the old 
Greeks, which for the. last thirty centuries runs 
through the Grecian heaven, at times shining with 


96 OLD ATTIC AND MODERN GREEK. 


all its usual light, at times scarcely visible and 
clouded by mist, but never extinguished. It is 
not and cannot be termed the daughter of the 
old Greek, just as the term is applied to modern 
languages derived from the Latin, because these 
languages are shoots from the root of the withered, 
dried, and grafted trunk of the Latin, whilst the 
modern Greek is the same old trunk, variously 
tried, withered as to some of its branches, but 
for the most part producing new branches in the 
place of the ones withered, never losing its vitality, 
and promising, under a careful cultivation, to be- 
come the same old shady and far-spreading tree 
which it was formerly. 

Modern languages, such as the French and the 
Italian, are founded, as a modern Greek scholar 
asserts, upon the “popular Latin”; but this Latin 
is, so to speak, in ruins, and it is from its ruins 
that these languages arose invested with new 
forms, new idioms, and a new life. Notice how 
the following Latin words, caballus, annulus, bovis, 
_ pater, mater, fratris, soror, pellis, oculus, ovum, testa, 
niger, instrumentum, corpus (corporis), become, so 
to speak, mutilated in the Italian cavallo, annello, 
bove or bue, padre, madre, fratello (especially from 
Fratellus), sorella, pelle, occhio, nove, testa, nero, 
strumento, corpo, and in the still worse French, 
cheval, anneau, beuf, pére, mere, frére, seur, peau, 
wil, wuf, téte, noire, instrument, corps. The three 


~ 


OLD ATTIC AND MODERN GREEK. 97 


genders in Latin are compressed into two. From 
the demonstrative pronoun ile, illa, the definite 
article le, Ja results; and from the numeral wnus, 
una, unum, the indefinite article wno, wna, un, une ; 
similar changes have occurred in the Greek Jan- 
guage, but when? In the Homeric and Attic 
times only. 

The forms of the verbs were likewise so much 
changed that it was necessary to add separate 
personal pronouns, to distinguish the persons, 
which has never occurred in the Greek language. 
Jaime, tu aimes, il aime, nous aimons, vous aimee, 
instead of Gmod, amas, amat, dmamus ; instead of 
the one perfectum, three were formed, defini, in- 
defini, anterieur. Besides this, another new tense 
was added, the ‘ conditional,” which does not 
really exist in the Latin. Thus, in the Italian we 
have the forms venderet, venderesti, venderebbe; and 
in the French, je vendrais, tu vendrais, ἐΐ vendrait, 
etc. Words of either foreign, German, Greek, 
or Celtic origin have crept into the language 
and are so thoroughly woven with the whole 
fabric of the language that they can never be 
eradicated: on the other hand, the foreign idioms 
which have been introduced into the Greek lan- 
guage are, for the most part, superficial; they are 
spots which can easily be rubbed out, and are by 
no means deep and indelible colors. 

These languages, accordingly, are justly termed 


98 OLD ATTIC AND MODERN GREEK. 


“her daughters,” but the ‘New Hellenistic” is 
one and the same old Greek; or, as a modern 
Greek scholar calls it, ‘the newest phase of the 
old Greek,”— to which state it has come slowly 
through many centuries, not violently, or acci- 
dentally, but unassisted, and by means of those 
very laws lying in her own nature. 

It may not be out of place here to remark, if 
we look to the matter of pronunciation in a prac- 
tical point of view, what has already been stated 
by a recent scholar who travelled in Greece, viz. : 
A knowledge of Greek, with the modern Greek 
pronunciation, will obviate the necessity of en- 
gaging an interpreter when travelling in Greece, 
Turkey, Egypt, and Asia Minor. Greek, as the 
language of the most thriving mercantile race, 
is the medium of communication between many 
of the various nations of the East. Again, by 
discarding the pronunciation now prevalent, and 
adopting instead the modern Greek, and by study- 
ing the Greek ‘“‘as a living language,” I will men- 
tion what scholars like Ross and Tassow have 
already noticed, ‘ that great light may be thrown 
upon the meaning of classical authors.” Be- 
sides, it is a fact that the knowledge of Greek 
as a living language is of chief significance in 
the verbal criticism of the New Testament and 
the Septuagint. 


CHAPTER IX. 


ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


Tue word ‘“ prosody” retains among the modern 
_ Greeks the signification of the old grammarians, 
— ‘the doctrine of accentuation.” In this sense 
it differs entirely from “ prosody” as the word is 
to-day understood by those who study the Greek 
as a foreign language. We-do not believe in the 
statements of J. Vossius and many others, that 
prosody meant simply ‘metrical quantity” or_ 
‘musical rhythm,” and that the genuine prosody 
of the Greek words was always in “unison of , 
sound with the poetical rhythm” or “the quantity 
of the syllables,” ete. 

' Now, that “prosody,” as a modern Greek 
scholar asserts, meant among the ancient Greeks 
“Kal Tas ἐν τῷ διαλέγεσθαι τάσεις τῆς ἐγγραμμάτου 
φωνῆς," viz. the “ grammatical accents,” is evident 
from what follows. 

Aristotle (350 B. C.) calls definitely the “accent 
of a word prosody.” ““Παρά δὲ τὴν προσῳδίαν 
ἐν μὲν τοῖς ἄνευ γραφῆς διαλεκτικοῖς οὐ ῥάδιον ποιῆ- 
σαι λόγον"... .. “Βαΐ from accent, in discussions 
which are not committed to writing, it is not easy 


100 ACCENT AND- QUANTITY. 


to frame an argument.” (oduct. ἐλέγχ. a, BX. 
καὶ ἐφεξῆς). Again, treating of ‘the parts of 
Rhetoric,” Aristotle recommends “ πῶς τοῖς. τόνοις 
χρῆσθαι, οἷον ὀξείᾳ καὶ βαρείᾳ καὶ μέσῃ... . . and 
on the manner in which we should employ its 
tones, viz. the acute, the grave, and the inter- 
mediate,” .... from which he says ‘ harmony 
results.” 

Accordingly, if musical intonation really was 
characteristic of ancient Greek accentuation, this 
feature has been most faithfully preserved. Pro- 
fessor Geldart remarks that the Greeks, especially 
when excited in preaching or public speaking, 
intone so melodiously that something very like a 
tune is heard of which the higher tones. are al- 
ways the more emphatic syllables. .... Aristox- 
enus, a pupil of Aristotle (330 B. C.), teaches 
that ““πρῶτον ἁπάντων, τὴν τῆς φωνῆς κίνησιν 
διοριστέον τῷ μέλλοντι πραγματεύεσθαι περὶ μέ- 
λους, αὐτὴν τὴν κατὰ τόπον: οὐ γὰρ εἷς τρόπος 
αὐτῆς ὦν τυγχάνει" κινεῖται μὲν γὰρ καὶ διαλεγομέ- 
νων ἡμῶν, καὶ μελῳδούντων, τὴν εἰρημένην κίνησιν. 
ὀξὺ γὰρ καὶ βαρὺ δῆλον ὡς ἐν ἀμφοτέροις τούτοις 
ἐστὶ (Apioto€. ἁρμονικ. στοιχ. Βιβλ. γ, ἐν τόμῳ a, 
σελ. 3, τῆς ἐκδὸσ. Μεΐβομ). Again, “Δύω δέ τινες 
εἰσιν ἰδέαι κινήσεως (of the voice), 7 τε συνεχὴς 
καὶ ἡ διαστηματική. Τὴν μὲν ody συνεχῆ λογικὴν 
εἶναι φαμέν - διαλεγουμένων γὰρ ἡμῶν οὕτως ἡ φωνὴ 
κινεῖται κατὰ τρόπον, ὥστε μηδαμοῦ δοκεῖν ἵστασθαι" 


ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 101 


Q δὲ A e , ν 5 , ὃ Ἁ 
κατὰ δὲ τὴν ἑτέραν, HV ὀνομάζομεν διαστηματικῆὴν, 
ἐναντίως πέφυκε γίνεσθαι' καὶ γὰρ ἵστασθαΐ τε δο- 
κεῖ, καὶ πάντες τὸν τοῦτο φαινόμενον ποιεῖν οὐκέτι 
λέγειν φασὶν, ἀλλ᾽ ᾷδειν- διόπερ ἐν τῷ διαλέγεσθαι 

, Ν ε ’ Ἁ a + ‘ ὃ ‘\ LO 
φεύγομεν τὸ ἱστάναι τὴν φωνὴν, av μὴ διὰ πάθος 
ποτὲ εἰς τοιαύτην κίνησιν ἀναγκασθῶμεν ἐλθεῖν - ἐν 
δὲ TO μελωδεῖν τοὐναντίον ποιοῦμεν" τὸ μὲν γὰρ 

\ ’ ea, - ’ Ἁ A ε ’ 
συνεχὲς φεύγομεν, το δ᾽ ἱστάναι τὴν φωνὴν ὡς μά- 
λιστα διώκομεν. ... 

Dionysius the Thracian (66 B. C.) defines the 
accent “φωνῆς ἀπήχησιν ἐναρμονίου ἡ κατὰ 
a » 3 Ee , ¥ Noe Ν 3 οι 
ἀνάτασιν ἐν TH ὀξείᾳ ἡ κατὰ ὁμαλισμὸν ἐν τῇ βα- 
pela, ἤ κατὰ περίκλασιν ἐν τῇ περισπωμένῃ." Cicero 
(60 B. C.), speaking of the acute (acutum), grave 
(gravum), and the circumflex (circumflexum), says, 
that from these, results... . ‘‘ quidam cantus” (Cicer. 
Orator. 17), so that, as Oekonomos asserts, gram- 
matical prosody in Latin was translated accentus 
(ac-cino = ad cano, viz. ad cantum). Dionysius of 
Halicarnassus (30 B.C.) mentions as of like name 
or meaning “‘prosody” and “accent”: τάσεις do- 
νῆς at καλούμεναι προσωδίαι. The same one, 
treating “epi μαθήσεως γραμμάτων," says “ πρῶ- 
TOV τὰ ὀνόματα TOV γραμμάτων ἐκμανθάνομεν" ἔπειτα 

Ἀ ’ Ν Ν ’ ον wa ‘ 
τοὺς τύπους Kal τὰς δυνάμεις " εἶθ᾽ οὕτω τὰς συλλα- 

Ν \ Ν 3 3 “ , \ εἶ “A » ‘\ 
Bas καὶ τὰ ἐν αὐταῖς πάθη" καὶ μετὰ τοῦτο ἤδη τὰς 
λέξεις καὶ τὰ συμβεβηκότα αὐταῖς, ἐκτάσεις τε λέγω 
καὶ συστολὰς καὶ προσωδίας.".... Sextus (190 B.C.) 
enumerates and distinctly calls “ τὰς τῶν Tpappa- 


102 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


τικῶν προσῳδίας, ὀξεῖαν καὶ βαρεῖαν Kal περισπω- 
μένην." Hence it results from the testimony 
of the different authors mentioned, and of many 
others omitted for the sake of brevity, that prosody 
meant by no means what Vossius and Henninius 
and others have asserted, ‘‘a singing and melody 
in unison of sound with the poetical rhythm,” 
but-simply the “accent tes A εις the pro- 
nunciation of a word,” or “τὸ λογῶδες μέλος τὸ ἐν 
τοῖς ὀνόμασιν," : as gc justly remarks. 

Erasmus himself never recommended the disuse 
of the Greek accent in pronunciation, and very 
well draws out the distinction between accent and 
quantity as follows. 

He puts his lesson into the mouth of a bear, 
who is made to say, ‘There are some men so 
obtuse as to confound stress with length of sound, 
while the two things are as different as possible.” 
A sharp sound is one thing, a long sound is an- 
other. Intensiveness is not the same thing as 
extensiveness. And yet I know learned men, 
who, in sounding the words ἀνέχου καὶ ἀπέχου, 
lengthened the middle syllable with all their 
might and main, just because it has the acute 
accent, though it is short by nature; in fact, as 
short asa syllable could be. Why, the very don- 
keys might teach us the difference between accent 
and quantity, for they, when they bray, make the 
sharp sound short and the deep one long. 


ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 103 


The “followers of Erasmus” in Germany, 
however vicious their pronunciation in other re- 
spects, invariably read Greek so that the accent 
is heard, and never dream that they are sacrificing 
quantity. 

Professor Geldart asserts, ‘that our prejudice 
against accents is for the most part insular, and 
deepened moreover by the insular peculiarities 
of our pronunciation. ‘This is especially the case 
with respect to long and short v, which we ordi- 
narily pronounce in exactly the same manner, 
namely as you. The result of this is, that when 
we want to show the difference between long 
and short v, we have no other means open to us 
than that of laying a stress on the long v and 
leaving the short unaccented. In ηὐτύχει and 
ὑπεύθυνος we pronounce the v as you, i. e., really 
long, and we only distinguish between the long v 
in the one case and the short v in the other by 
flying in the face of the Greek accent, and read- 
ing the words respectively ηὔτυχει and ὑπευθύνος. 
In this case, so far from preserving the true quan- 
tity by the use of the Latin accent, we are only 
covering a false one.” 

Now, there is no human language without its 
accents of prosody — whether written or not — 
fixed or represented by analogy or custom. Be- 
cause, as Oekonomos remarks, the accent tends to 
the unity of the word, concentrating its syllables 


104 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


into one whole, and rendering the meaning of the 
word clear. ‘Thus, the accentual, or, so to speak, 
“belonging to speaking,” prosody of the common 
dialect differed from the poetical prosody. Hence 
’ it results, that Vossius and his ‘followers are 
wrong in affirming that the accents of the words 
were always in unison with the metre of the 
verses and the quantity of the syllables. This is 
evident, as a modern Greek says, because, first, 
the whole nation were not poets; and again, be- 
cause the accents as a consequence would have 
been unsteady or indefinite, being changed to suit 
the quantity of syllables, which at times vary, — 
becoming either long or short, for the completion 
or perfection of the metre, — that is to say, the 
accents could not then have had a definite and 
fixed location in the common dialect or in con- 
versation ; the laws and meaning of the language 
would no. longer have been unvarying, and it 
could not have been a satisfactory medium: of 
communication for the people (who certainly did 
not converse with each other in verse), or for 
philosophers themselves. This reminds us how 
Lucianus, the famous writer, a native of Samo- 
sata, in a witty way says that Venus, once en- 
raged against the inhabitants of Abdera, caused 
them all to be seized with a poetical frenzy, 
so that the one could not understand the 
other ! : 


ACCENT AND QUANTITY. ΤΟΥ 


We conclude, therefore, that there exists in the 
Greek language the definite accentuation of 
words as old as the language itself. Oekonomos 
says that the Greek language expressed from the 
earlier times the stress of its sounds, -that is to 
say, the accentual prosody of the words, definitely 
according to the custom of each dialect. The Do- 
rians, for instance, have the peculiarity of using 
the circumflex accent in barytone futures, as in ἀσῶ 
δωσῶ λεξοῦντι (λέξουσι). The AXolians again, by 
putting the acute accent on the penultimate, say 
φρόνην, κάλην, vonv instead of φρονεῖν, etc. They 
likewise, in words of two syllables, place the acute 
accent on the penultimate, whilst others accent 
the same words on the last syllables; for instance, 
σύφος or addos κάλος, Tpaxus, o€us, πήλευς, θῦμος 
avws instead of αὐὼς (ams, ἠὼς) θυμός, ete., and the 
adverbs κάλως, σόφως instead of ὥς. Thus, thie 
Beeotians were wont to say ὑγίεις instead of ὑγιὴς 
(ει == 7). In like manner were formed χαρίεις, 
aiyhyeus, τελήεις. In like manner, although Plato 
wrote ταχυτῆτα, he also wrote θεότητα, ἀνθρωπό- 
TyTa, τρατηζότητα, κυαθότητα, etc. 

The Attics used to say, τουτὶ, ταυτὶ, ἐκεινωνί in- 
stead of ταῦτα, τοῦτο, ἐκείνων. They likewise said, 
πόνηρε καὶ ἄληθες καὶ ἄντικρυς and ἐλθέ, εἶπέ, εὑρέ. 
They also said, διέτης, τριέτης and δίετες, τρίετες, 
etc., while others accent the same words on the last 
syllable. The Ionians and the Attics said, ἀληθείη, 


106 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


ἀναιδείη, εὐκλείη, κατηφείη, whilst, on the other 
hand, the Attic tragedians in these very words 
accent the antepenult. 

Now, these variations of accent are simply dia- 
lectic. They by no means change the fact, that 
there is a definite law of accentuation in the Greek 
language. 

This definite law of accentuation existed even 
before the Greek language was divided into dia- 
lects. So long as the Greeks remained a tribe 
of small numbers, inhabiting one and the same 
country, they spoke one and the same language, 
and the greatest harmony prevailed as respects 
the accent and pronunciation of the words. But 
when the Greeks commenced to scatter and to 
migrate into different countries, then, in time, 
their language also began to differ by certain 
variations and distinctions, and hence the dialects 
arose. 

Similar dialectic variations exist to this day in 
the Greek language, but the people understand 
each other without any difficulty whatever. These 
dialectic variations do not alter the language, con- 
‘sequently the rules of accentuation are uniform, 
although the people adapt them to suit their 
idiomatic peculiarities. Poetic prosody likewise 
teaches the uniform accentuation of words. This 
is evident because many short syllables become 
long in both the arsis and the thesis, by means 


ACCENT AND QUANTITY. SOT 


of the accent, which, as Oekonomos asserts, 
lengthens somewhat the quantity in pronuncia- 
tion. For instance, the Homeric ὑποδεξίη (1λ.), 
ἀκομιστίη (O08. φ), kaxoepyin (O06. x), depyin (05. a), 
ἱστίη (08. €), ιλίου (IX. 0), ἀγρίου (IN. x), ὁμοιΐου 
(IN. €), ὑπεροπλίῃσι (IX. a) lengthen « by means 
of the accent, naturally short in these words. 
Oekonomos also says, that o and ε become long in 
Αἰόλου (O06. x), ἀπὸ ἔθεν (IX. ζ), ἱππότην (Emvypapm. 
Παυσαν. θ, 10), Θεαγένην (Avr. στ. 11, 2), ete. 
Likewise in the ἀγυιὰ καὶ ὀργυιὰ (Herod. and 
Xenop.). Now, it is only by the placing of the 
accent on the antepenultimate that final a becomes 
short, as, for instance, ayviav (IA. v, 254), dpyur’ 
ὑπὲρ (O06. 1, 828). It is on this account that the 
Attic tragedians, by shortening the last syllable, 
used the Aolic forms ἧμιν, ὕμιν mstead of ἡμῖν, 
viv, ete. 

Now, we believe that the accents always eXx- 
isted in the Greek language. There is no lan- 
guage without its accents. Aristophanes _ of 
Byzantium (200 B. C.) might have introduced 
written accents, in order to preserve the true pro- 
nunciation of Greek at the time when it was 
becoming the vernacular of many Oriental races, 
but accents existed long before Aristophanes, and, 
in fact, long before the Homeric era. Accents, 
we say, always existed, but the ancient Greeks 
did not generally write them: The fact that 


108 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. | 


many of the inscriptions that have been dis- 
covered are without accents does by no means 
prove that accents did not exist among the an- 
cient Greeks. Now, the modern Greeks seldom, 
if ever, put any accents on capital letters, that 
is to say, on words composed of capitals, and it 
would not be strange if the ancient Greeks like- 
wise were cael τ to leave off the accents 
from inscriptions, which were generally written 
with capitals. It is, however, worthy of remark 
that a verse of Euripides, with accentual marks, 
has been discovered written on the walls of Her- 
culaneum. It was natural for the ancient Greeks 
to pronounce their language correctly, even with- 
out_marking the syllables on which the stress 
ought to fall by means of the accent. To this 
day, many women of Greece, in writing to their 
husbands away from home, usually write without 
the accents. But do they not know how to pro- 
nounce their language just as well as those who 
_ make constant use of written accents? ‘To pro- 
nounce correctly, to lay the stress on the syllable 
on which the accent falls, is natural to every 
Greek, although he may do it unconsciously. He 
is taught to pronounce according to accent from 
early childhood; he pronounces correctly, al- 
though he may not know the laws of prosody. 
We said that accents have always existed in 
the Greek language. Homer (1000 B. C.) says 


ACCENT AND QUANTITY. ~ 109 


Τρῶας and Tpwas (Ih. y, 57). “ANN εἰσέρχεο τεῖχος, 
ἐμὸν τέκος, ὄφρα cawons Τρῶας καὶ Τρωάς, μηδὲ 
μέγα κῦδος ὀρέξης. Now, how could Homer other- 
wise than by means of the accent distinguish 
between the male and female inhabitants? Oceko- 
nomos also brings the example of δμώων καὶ δμῶας 
(6 Sues: O86. € 59 and 399) from δμωῶν καὶ δμωὰς 
(ἡ δμωὴ, Οδ. 121 and 25, 45, 154). How could 
he distinguish finally λάων and λαῶν (IK. φ, 314) 
unless by means of the accent? It is by means 
of the accent, Oekonomos says, that Homer length- 
ened in the arsis or thesis the short syllable of 
the penult and the antepenult, as ἴμεναι, ἀρόμε- 
ναι, ὄϊες, κακοεργίη, ἀγρίου, ὁμοίου, etc.; he also 
shortened the long syllable, or the one before it, 
by means of the accent, as ἐγείρομεν, βούλεται, 
ἀποθείομεν instead of ἐγείρωμεν, βούληται, ἀποθείω- 
μεν. Compare also the ἐπειὴ μεμᾶὼς “Ayireds, 
᾿Αχίλῆος, ‘Odvceds, ᾿Οδύσῆος, because it is on ac- 
count of the force of the following accent that the 
one of the consonants was omitted. The ancient 
erammarians spoke in detail concerning these 
facts, as did also the great scholar Hernnanus in 
his “ Klementa doctrine metrice,” page 56, ete. 
Again, Aristophanes (430 B. C.), by means of 
the accent, shows the difference in the meaning 
of the words: Βόειος δημὸς (oxytone) from δῆμος 
(Barp. 40, Ἵππ. 95) and διαπεινῶμεν from διαπίνο- 
μεν (Boeotian, διαπεινᾶμες καὶ διαπίνομες). His con- 


110 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


temporary, Isocrates, played upon the words καὶ 
νοῦ with καινοῦ (γραφιδίου καινοῦ, καὶ βιβλίου Kat- 
vov,and so on). Plato (390 B.C.) distinctly says, 
“Πολλάκις ἐπεμβάλλομεν γράμματα, τὰ δ᾽ ἐξαιροῦ- 
3 ὦ ’ 3 ’ ε Ν 3 , 
μεν, Tap ὅ βουλόμεθα ὀνομάζοντες, καὶ τὰς ὀξύτητας 
, ᾿ ®@ δι , a ν > V eG ge ng 
μεταβάλλομεν, οἷον Ati φίλος - τοῦτο ἵνα ἀντὶ ῥήμα- 
τος ὄνομα ἡμῖν γένηται, τό, τε ἕτερον αὐτόθεν ἰῶτα 
ἐξείλομεν, καὶ ἀντὶ ὀξείας τῆς μέσης συλλαβῆς βα- 
ρεῖαν ἐφθεγξάμεθα" ἄλλων δὲ τοὐναντίον ἐμβάλλο- 
’ Ν Ν ’ὔ ’ 4, 

μεν γράμματα, τὰ δὲ βαρύτερα φθεγγόμεθα. Τούτων 
τοίνυν ἕν καὶ τὸ τῶν ἀνθρώπων ὄνομα πέπονθεν, ὡς 
ἐμοὶ δοκεῖ: ἐκ γὰρ ῥήματος ὄνομα γέγονεν, ἑνὸς γράμ- 
ματος, τοῦ α, ἐξαιρεθέντος, καὶ βαρυτέρας τῆς τελευ- 
τῆς γενομένης, ἐντεῦθεν ὁ ἄνθρωπος (ἐστὶν) ἀναθρῶν 
a ὅπωπε..... . “ We often put in and leave out let- 
ters in words, and give names as we please, and 
change the accents. ‘Take, for example, the words 
Διὰ φίλος. In order to convert these into a noun 
we omit one of the iotas, and sound the middle 
syllable grave instead of acute; as, in other words 
also, letters are inserted, and the grave is changed 
5 » . 

into an acute. .... The name ἄνθρωπος, which 
was once a phrase and is now a noun, appears 
to be a case just of this sort; for one letter, 
which is the a, has been omitted, and the acute 
of the last syllable has been changed to a 
grave..... Hence man, of all animals, is rightly 
called ἄνθρωπος, meaning ὁ ἀναθρῶν a ὅπωπεν. 


Again, Aristotle (860 B.C.) says: Παρὰ δὲ τὴν 


- 


’ 5 Ν ὑφ ¥ ~ ὃ ” 3 
προσῳδίαν ἐν μὲν τοῖς ἄνευ γραφῆς διαλεκτικοῖς οὐ 
ῥάδιον ποιῆσαι λόγον, ἐν δὲ τοῖς γεγραμμένοις καὶ 
ποιήμασι λόγον μᾶλλον - οἷον καὶ τὸν Ὅμηρον ἔνιοι 
διορθοῦνται πρὸς τοὺς ἐλέγχοντας ὡς ἀτόπως εἰρη- 

, (γὴν Ν > ΄ ἊΡ 7) , 
κότα... . . “Τὸ μὲν ov καταπύθεται ὄμβρω," λύουσι 

\ > 8 an , , \ > 5.“ X 
yap αὐτὸ TH προσωδίᾳ λέγοντες τὸ οὐ ὀξύτερον. Καὶ 
τὸ περὶ τὸ ἐνύπνιον τοῦ ᾿Αγαμέμνονος, ὅτι οὐκ αὐτὸς 
ὁ Ζεὺς εἶπε. .... “δίδομεν δέ οἱ εὖχος ἀρέσθαι," 
9 \ ~ > ’ὔ / 
ἀλλὰ τῷ ἐνυπνίῳ διδόναι. 

‘‘ But from accent, in discussions which are not 
committed to writing, it is not easy to frame an 
argument, but rather in writings and poems; as, 
for instance, some defend Homer against those 
who accuse him as having spoken absurdly, — 


Ν Ν 3 x + 
Τὸ μὲν οὐ καταπύθεται ὄμβρῳ, --- 


for they solve this by accent, saying that οὐ is to 
be marked with an acute accent. Also about the 
dream of Agamemnon, because Jupiter himself 
does not say, 


δίδομεν Se οἱ εὖχος ἀρέσθαι, 


but says to the dream διδόναι. Such things, 
therefore, are assumed (explained) from accent.” 
Although the Greek language from its earlier 
times had “ accents,” their use became more prey- 
alent in both writing and speaking after the time 


of Aristophanes (200 B.C.), who is also considered | 


as their inventor. 


ACCENT AND: QUANTITY. 411 





112 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


ε ’ Ν « , Ν Ν 4 > tA 
Oi χρονοι καὶ οἱ TOVOL καί Ta πνεύματα, Ἀριστοφάνους 
ΕῚ / 4, ’ὔ , A >] 
ἐκτυπώσαντος γέγονε πρὸς TE διωκρισιν τῆς ἀμφιβολου 
ἢ Ν Ν Ν , A nA ͵ eee 
λεξεως, καὶ πρὸς TO μελος τῆς φωνῆς συμπάσης, Kal τὴν 
ς ‘ € ΕΝ 3 ’ 7 7 3 ε 
ἁρμονίαν, ὡς ἂν ἐπᾷάδοιμεν φθεγγόμενοι. Σκεψαι δ᾽ ὡς 
[72 > - fal d Ν >] / , a yy 
ἕκαστον αὐτῶν φυσικῶς ἅμα καὶ οἰκείως, καθώπερ τὰ Op- 
3 τῷ 2 Ἀ > / 3 Ν Ν - 
yava, ἐσχηματισται καὶ ὠνομασται" ἐπειδὴ καὶ ταῦτα 
+ a λ ͵ «, ΕΝ 4 6 β ον ὁ ἣν Ν 
ἐμέλλε τῷ oy@ ὡὠσπερ opyava ἐσεσθαι" εωρᾶκεὲ yap Kat 
x Ν ῇ Ν / Ν Ἀ > Ν ’ 
τὴν μουσικὴν οὕτω τὸ μέλος καὶ τους ἀριθμους σημαινομε- 
Ἀ a ‘ 3 lal a 3 > / Ν Ν Ν 
νὴν" καὶ πῇ μὲν ἀνιείσαν, πῇ ὃ επιτείνουσαν, καὶ τὸ μεν 
9 Ἂς ἈΝ Ν X29 4 3 Ν 
ὀξὺ τὸ δὲ βαρυ ὀνομάζουσαν, x.T.r. (Apxad. Παρὰ Βι- 
es nr / ᾿] ΥΩ 
λοϊσῶν " Προλεγόμ. εἰς “Ομηρον. σελ. 1a.) 


Now, it results from what has been said, and 
from the direct testimony of the different authors 
mentioned, and of many whose testimony might 
have been cited, that grammatical accent or pros- 
ody is essentially different. from “poetical pros- 
ody.” The modern Greeks in pronouncing ac- 
cording to accent agree in every respect with the 
direct testimony of the ancient _grammarians, the 


divine Plato, Aristotle , Cicero, ΕΣ rermiarieal 





[90 


Τρ οίτο οὗ nasa age sind οἱ shiny others. 
The statement of Professor Sophocles that all 
vowel sounds in modern Greek are isochronous 
is incorrect, because in many instances we pro- 
nounce more or less the graveas_well as the 
acute accent. We distinguish the acute accent, 
as Oekonomos justly remarks, by pronouncing 





ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 113 
ἰ 


the word more emphatically, or by raising the 
voice, and especially so in questions, as tis τὸν 
ἔκαμε κριτήν ; we pronounce likewise the circum- 
flex, though rarely, by prolonging the voice. This 
is especially to be noticed in Thessaly and Epirus, 
in which countries the people pronounce εἶδα = 
(ida; and δῶμα as if it were δόδμα, ete. 

Now, to attempt to pronounce the Greek ac- 
cording to the principles of Latin accentuation is 
deagly ἢ absurd. It is a fact that Latin prosody in 
some instances agrees with Greek accentuation, 
but in many respects there is a wide difference 
between the two. To begin with, the Latin ac- 
centuation of many words renders doubly sure 
the accuracy and correctness of the accentuation 
of the modern Greeks. For instance, the pro- 
paroxytone words, ᾿Απόλλωνος, ᾿᾽Ωρίωνος, εἴδωλον, 
ἔρημος, ἐνέργημα, παράκλητος, the ancient Latin 
poets used likewise to pronounce by marking 
the antepenultima with the acute accent, as Apdl- 
linis, Orionis (see | vamque O | rionis | ensem, Hor), 
idolum (Auson). Now, those who pronounce 
simply according to the quantity of syllables, 
pronounce as if the words were written, εἰδῶλον, 
᾿Απολλῶνος, and so forth, and thus, as Oekonomos 
puts it, act in violation of the principles of both 
_the Grecian and Latin Muse. The Latins never 
accent the last syllable of a word. On the other 
hand, the Greek language possesses many such 


114 ACCENT AND QUANTITY, 


nouns, and hénce this difference alone suffices to 
put an insurmountable barrier between the Latin 
and—Greek prosody. ~The Latin tongue, being 
fashioned after the Aolic dialect, keeps, generally 
speaking, its accentuation, especially so in words 
of two syllables, which the AZolians pronounced 
by placing the accent on the penultima, as αὔως 
ἔμμι (dws, εἰμὶ). Many words of three syllables 
they pronounced by placing the acute accent on 
the penultima, as ᾿Αχίλλευς ἡ ᾿Αχίλλης, Ὑδύσσευς. 
Latin: Achilles, Ulysses. Oxytone or paroxytone 
trisyllabic words the AZolians used to pronounce 
by placing the acute accent on the antepenultima, 
for instance, dvvaros instead of δυνατὸς, and so 
on. But even in the accentuation of words of 
two and three syllables, generally speaking, the 
Kolians differed materially from the Latins. ‘Thus, 
the AZolians pronounced κατὰ, σιῶ, ἰὼν, and, again, 
iépns, Mvacias, etc. Again, Oekonomos justly re- 
marks, that Latin prosody materially differed from 
the Greek, inasmuch as the Latins accent the ante- 
penultimate even when the last syllable is, accord- 
ing to the Greeks, long. On the other hand, the 
Greek prosody always strictly observes the last 
syllable of every word and its change in respect 
to the cases, and places the accent according to 
the quantity of the last syllable. For instance, the 
Latins say Philoséphia, Histéria, Theolégia, Ee- 
clésia, and the genitives Cérporum, angeli, and so 


2 ἊΣ Φ : 
ACCENT AND cua (145 
uy 
on, plein the accent on th να thtepenn ultishate, : 
which fact is in direct violation ofxth ‘Pringiples O, 
of Greek prosody, which is always “directell ἱ j 
the accentuation of a word by the quantity of: 
the_last t_ syllable “Again, the change of the δόξ 
cent by. contraction is a thing unknown among 
the Latins, as céréo = yapéw, χηρέω, χηρεύω, 
xXnpow, -@, and δέκω, δείκω, κνύω, δόκω, dOceo — δο- 
κέω, hence δοκῶ. There are, besides, numberless 
other peculiarities of the Greek language, both dia- 
lectic and perpetual, which divide and separate its 
prosody from the Latin. But however well Latin 
prosody has been fashioned and formed by her 
glorious poets and writers, yet it never could 
attain, imitate, or approach, either the euphony, 
the elasticity, or the manifold and very rich 
variety of the Grecian prosody. Finally, it is 
a fact that modern Philology, owing to the great 
changes which have passed over the Latin lan- 
guage, ever since the second century after Christ, 
has been unable to ascertain the original sound 
of her letters. Thus we claim that it is incon- 
sistent with well-established principles and facts 
to attempt to pronounce Greek according to Latin 
accentuation. There is certainly much similarity 
between the Greek and Latin, but this similarity 
or resemblance is not, as a Greek says, that of 
one egg to another, neither that of one drop of 
water to another. The Latin language resem- 


116 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


bles the Greek language just as a daughter 
resembles her mother, or just as a sister might 
resemble her sister; or, as Oekonomos says, how- 
ever strong a resemblance there may be between 
the two languages, the warbling of a Procne 
(swallow) differs from that of a nightingale. 

Now, that the accent plays a most important 
part in the meaning of a word, is manifest from 
the following collection of words, which are 
written alike, but distinguished from each other 
in meaning by the accents. ‘The distinguished 
scholar, Gottlob Hoffman, said in reference to this 
point, “Why! anybody can easily distinguish 
the word δία from διὰ and μόνη from μονὴ (μένω) 
and some other similar words simply by the 
meaning "ἢ However, there are many words and 
many nouns in the Greek language distinguished 
from each other simply by means of the accent, 
but without which all the soothsayers of the world 
could never tell the meaning. 


ter; κωπῶν ay. Asch. Pers. 

425, 

᾿Αγελαῖος, belonging to a herd. | "Ayyros, Agetus, a Spartan. 

᾿Αγέλαιος, of the herd or mul- ᾿Αγητός, admired, famous. 
titude ; ἀγ. ἄνθρωποι, opp. to | ᾿Αγκῦρα, Ancyra, a city of Ga- 
ἄρχοντες. latia. 

"Ayn, in good sense, wonder, | "Ayxupa, an anchor. 
reverence, awe; in badsense, | ᾿Αγόραιος, to be bought in the 
envy, hatred. market ; as in most Edd. 

"Ayn, -ῆς, breakage, piece, splin- of the N. T. ἄρτος. 


A. 


ἌΝ 





ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


᾿Αγοραῖος, belonging to the 
ἀγορά, Ζεὺς ἀγοραῖος. 

"Aywv, ἄγοντος, leading. 

᾿Αγών, -Gvos, ὦ contest. 

᾿Αδολέσχης, chatterer , ἀδολε- 
σχής, subtle. Joh. Philopo- 
nus. 

᾿Αθρόος, -a, -ov, very rarely -os, 
-ov, assembled in crowds. 
Eustath. p. 1387. 

"AOpoos, -ov (a priv. θρόος), 
noiseless, only in gramm. 

_ ᾿Αθῶος, -ov, unpunished, scot- 
Sree. 

"AQwos, -n, -ov, of Mount Athos. 
Atsch. Ag. 285. 

Atos, -εος, ὦ burning heat, 
Sire. 

Αἰθός, -y, -dv, burnt, fire-col- 
ored, fiery. Pind. p. 8, 65. 
Bachy]l. 12. 

Atvos, -ov, 6, 1, ὦ tale, story, 
hence, a fable ; 2, praise. 
Aivos, -ή, -ὄν, Ep. word = δεινός, 

dread, dire, fearful. 

Αἰόλος, -η, -ov, easily turning, 
quietly moving. 

Αἴολος, -ov,the god of the winds. 

Αἰπεῖα, fem. of Airis, high and 
steep ; lofty. 

Aiea, -as, -n, 1, δα, a city 
of Messenia; 2, a city in 
the island of Cyprus, later, 
Soli. 

Atos, -eos, τό, ὦ height, a 





117 


steep, a hill. Asch. Ag. 
285, etc.; πρὸς αἷπος ἰέναι, 
ὁδοιπορεῖν. 

Αἰπός, -n, -dv, Ep. for αἰπύς, 
high, lofty, usu. of cities. 
᾿Ακή, ἡ, 1, ὦ point, edge; 

2, silence, ete. 

"Akyn, -ἧς, ἡ, Ace, the earlier 
name of the city Ptolemais 
in Phenicia. 

᾿Ακήλητος, inexorable. 

᾿Ακηλητός, spotless. Joh. Phi- 
lop. 

"Axis, -idos, ἡ, α point-barb, a 
splinter. 

* Axis, -ἰδος, 6, Acis, a river of 
Sicily. Theoce. 1, 69. 

"Axpus, -vos, 1, the extremity ; 
2, Acris, a city of Libya. 
Diod. 

*Axpis, -idos, ὦ locust. 
᾿Ακροβόλος, one that throws 
Jrom afar, a skirmisher. 
᾿Ακρόβολος, -ov, struck from 

afar. 

“AXia, -as, an assembly, gather- 
ing. ς 

“Αλιά, -ας, α salt-cellar. 

“ANs, adv., in heaps, in crowds, 
in swarms. 

“Ais, -ἔδος, saltiness. 


, Arua, ὦ threshing-floor. 


"Adda, a festival of Demeter. 
"Apyros, -ov, ὁ, ἃ reaping, har- 
vesting. 


118 


᾿Αμητός, the harvest gathered 

᾿Αμυγδαλῆ, -ἧς, oft in Theophr. 
the almond-tree. 

᾿Αμυγδάλη, -ς, an almond. 

"Apa, Ep. pa, then, straight- 
way, ete. 

"Apd, ἂς, ὦ curse. 

᾿Αραιός, -n, -ov, thin, narrow, 
weak. 

“Apaios, -ala, prayed against, 
accursed. 

"Apyns, -ov, ὃ, Arges or Cyclops. 
Hes. Th. 140. 

᾿Αργῆς, ἃ kind of serpent. 


᾿Αργής, -ἣτος, white, bright. . 
-ov, 6, Argus, son of 
tpiter and Niobe, and King 


ey 
ργός, τή, 
δρῖσλί. 
"Apvetos, -εἴα, -εἰον, Of a lamb 
or sheep; κρέα. 
᾿Αρνειός, -00, 6, ὦ young ram 
just full-grown. 
᾿Αρνός, ὦ sheep, ete. . 
"Apvos, Arnus, a river of Etru- 
ria, now the Arno. 
‘Aprayn, -ns, seizure, rapine. 
᾿Ἁρπάγη, -ns, ὦ hook, esp. for 
drawing up a bucket. 
"Apots, -ews, ἡ, TAising up. 
arrow-point. 


-ov, shining, 


᾿Αρσίς,, -οἰίδος, 
Pharor. 
᾿Αρτίτοκος, new-born. 





ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


᾿Αρτιτόκος, having just given 
birth ; μήτηρ. 

᾿Αρτίτομος, just cut. 

᾿Αρτιτόμος, having just cut. 

᾿Ασφόδελος, 6, asphodel. 

᾿Ασφοδελός, producing aspho- 
del. 

Aidnrys, ὦ flute-player. 

Αὐλήτης, ὦ farm-servant. 


Β. 
Βαιόξ, -α, -ov, little, insignifi- 
— cant. 
Batos, Boeus, a man. 
Βάκχειος, belonging to Bac- 
chus or his rites. 
Βακχεῖος, sub. -πούς, a metrical 
Soot of three syllables,~—— 
or ——~. 
βασίλειὰ, & queen, princess. 
(Βασιλεία; a kingdom. 
Βηλός, -0d, ὃ, the threshold. 
Βῆλος, -ov, Belus, a Babylonian 
deity. 
Bios, -ov, life. 
Buds, ἃ bow. 
Βληχρός, -d, -ov, weak, nerve- 
less. 
Βλῆχρος, ὦ woody plant, flow- 
ering late. 
Bpords, -οὔ, 6, mortal, man. 
Βρύότος, blood that has flowed 
from a wounded man, gore. 
Βυσσός, -ov, the depths of the 
sea ; water-deeps. 


ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


Βύσσος, a fine yellowish fla, 
and the dinen made from it 
(cotton). 


΄ 


ἜΣ 


Ταῦλος, a round-built Phoeni- 
cian merchant-vessel. 

Ταυλός, -00, ὦ milk-pail, a wa- 
ter-bucket. 

Τέλοιος, laughable, absurd. 


Tedotos, exciting laughter, 
7,677. Ὁ 

Γλαυκός, -ἡ, -ον, bright, gleam- 
ing, ete. 


Γλαῦκος, an edible fish of gray 
color. 

Tovos, -ov, that which is begot- 
ten, a child. 

Tovds, corn-land, a sown field 

_(Hom.), usu. in phrase, Tov- 

νὸν ἁλωῆς. 

Τυρός, -ά, -ον, round, Lat. cur- 
vUs. 

Τῦρος, -ov, ὦ round ring, circle. 


A. 


Δειρή, -ἧς, the neck, throat. 

Δείρη, a city and promon- 

tory. 

Δῆμος, -ov, ὦ country dis- 

trict. 

Anpos, -0d, fat, tallow. 
«-Δημοσία, adv. publicly. 
ἰΔημόσιας -ra, neut. public 

things. 





“E59 


Δία, ace. of Ζεύς. 

Διὰ, prep. by, through. 

Διογενής, noble, born of Jove. 

Διόγένης, Diogenes, ἃ man’s 
name. 

Διχοτόμος, cutting in two. 

Διχότομος, -ov, pass., cut in 
half, divided equally. 

Δόκος, ὃ, Opinion. 

Δοκός, beam. 

Δόλιος, -α, -ον, crafty, deceit- 
Sul. 

Δολιός, -ov, 6, Dolius, a slave 
of Laertes in Ithaca. 

Apupds, an oak-coppice, thicket. 

Δρύμος, Drymus, a city of Pho- 
cis. 


E. 


Εἶπε, he said. 

Εἰπέ, say thou. 3 

Ἔλευσις, coming, arrival. 

Ἐλευσίς, -wos, Hleusis, a 
city. . 

"Egaiperos, 
picked. 

"Egaiperds, -7, -όν, that can be 
taken out. 

Ἔπαινος, approval, praise. 

Ἔπαινός, -ἡ, -ov, exceedingly 
awful. 

"Exapxia, α province. 

᾿Ἑπάρχια, ἃ Woman’s name. 

‘Epweds, the wild fig-tree. 

’Epiveos, of wool, woollen. 


τον, taken out, 


120 


"Eros, ὦ year. 
"Eros, in vain. 
Εὐανθής, flowery. 

Evav6ns, Huanthes, a name. 
Εὐγενής, well-born (a civil, po- 
lite man), εὐγενής ἄνθρωπος. 
Ἐῤγένης, Lugenes,a poet of the 

Anthology. 
Εὐμενής, well-disposed. 
Εὐμένης, Mumenes, a brave 
Athenian at Salamis. 
Εὐκλεία, renown, good fame. 


Εὔκλεια, Huclia, an appella-— 


tion of Diana. 
Εὐσθενής, stout, lively. 
Εὐσθένης, Husthenes, a name. 


Z. 


Ζωρός, -ov, pure, sheer. 

Zopos, Zorus, founder of Car- 
thage. 

Zum, life. 

Zon, τὸ ἐπάνω τοῦ μέλιτος, καὶ 


γάλακτος. Eust. p. 900, 52. 


H. 


"Hywv, slinger. 

Ἡμῶν, gen. pl. of ἡμεῖς. 

Ἡράκλειος, -a, -ov, belonging to 
Hercules. 

Ἡρακλεῖος, herculean. 

Ἥττων, compart. 

Ἡττῶν, part. of ἡττάω. 





ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


0. 


i\fem. of Θεός. 
ea, \a seeing. 


Θερμός, -7, -ov, warm, hot, boil- 
ing. 

Θέρμος, -ov, the lupine, esp. lu- 
pinous, used in Athens to 
counteract the effects of 
drink. 

A03, ὦ dome. 

Moho, mud, dirt. 

Θυμός, -ot, 1, the soul ; 
wrath, ete. 

Ovpos, -ov, thyme, Lat. thymus. 


2, 


I. 
Ia, ἡ, Voice. 


"Ta, old Ion. one ; plural, violet. 

Ἰδέ, and. 

Ἴδε, behold. 

᾿Ιδοῦ, imp. aor. mid. 

᾿Ιδού, lo! behold. 

ἹἹδρύμενος, part. pres. 

Ἱδρυμένος, part. perf. 

"Ids, rust, ete. 

"Tos, -ἰος, one of the Sporades, 

, etc. 

ἸΙπνός, -6, aN oven. 

Ἴπνος, Jpnus, a place in Locris. 

Ἱπποκόμος, keeping or groom- 
ing horses, etc. 

Ἱππόκομος, horse-haired, etc. 

Ἱπποκορυστής, -ov, equipping, 
arming horses. 

Ἱπποκορύστης, Hippocorystes, 
masc. prop. noun. 


ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


K. 


Καιρός, -od, 1, strictly the right 
measure » 2, the right meas- 
ure of time. 

Καῖρος, also xaipws, threads, 
slips, or thrums on the beam 
of the loom. 

Καλλισθενής, adorned with 
strength. 

Καλλισθένης, Callisthenes, an 
orator. 

Κᾶλον, dry wood, fire-wood. 

Καλόν, neut. of καλός. 


121 


Κνῆμος, Cnemus, a name. 
Κόμπος, pride. 

Kopzros, proud. 

Κριός, @ ram. 

Κρῖος, ἃ proper name. 
Κτᾶσθαι from κτάομαι. 
Κτάσθαι from κτείνω. 

Κυκέω, mix. 

Κυκεῶ, accus. of κυκεών. 
Κύρτος, αἱ creed. 

Κυρτός, crooked. Eust. p. 907. 
Κύρτος, ὦ fishing-basket. 
Κυρτός, curved, bent, arched. 


K τς Καλῶς, adv. from καλός. 
ΣΦ, Κάλως, ὦ rope. 
2” Καμπή, a bending, winding, as 


A. 
Λάβη, pretext. 


of a river. 

Κάμπη; ὦ caterpillar. 

Κεῖνος for ἐκεῖνος. 

Κεινός, empty: 

Κηλητής, ὦ charmer. 

Κηλήτης, charmed. 

Κεράστης from κέρας. ‘ 

Kepaorys from κεράννυμι. 

Κῆρος, Cerus, a river. 

Kypos, wax. 

Κλειτό:; -7, -ov, renowned, fa- 
mous. 

Κλεῖτος, Clitus,a proper name. 

Κλείω, to tell of, make fa- 
mous. 

Κλειώ, Clio, one of the Muses. 

Κνῆκος, the thistle. 

Κνηκός, yellow. 

Κνημός, woody. 





Aafin, handle. 

Aaos, -ov, the people. 

Λᾶος, the name of a city. 

Adpos, ὦ ravenous sea-bird ; 
the gull. 

Aapos, -4, -ov, pleasant, nice. 

Aéras, ὦ bare rock. 

Aerds, a limpet. 

Anvos, ὦ wine-press. 

Ajvos, wool. 

Λιθοβόλος, throwing stones. 

Λιθόβολος, struck with stones. 

Aixavos, fore-finger. 

Λιχανός, string of a harp. — 


M. 
Maxpos, Jong. 
Μάκρος, length. 
MaAakia, softness. 


122 


Μαλάκια, water-animals of soft 
substance. 

Μονή, ὦ staying (convent). 

Μόνη; fem. of Μόνος. 

Μόχθηρος, laborious. 

_ Μοχθηρός, wretched. 

Μυιῶν, gen. from pria; μυιών, 
muscle, 

Μυλλός, awry, crooked. 

MvAXos, an edible fish. 

Μυλών, a. place for a mill, 
etc. 

Μύλων, a city. 

Μυρίοι, infinite in numbers. 

Μύριοι, ten thousand. 


N. 


Νέος, young. 
Neds, fresh land, fallow. 
ἢ ὦ pasture. 





Ἐανθός, golden, yellow. 
Ξάνθος, a proper name. 
Ξενών, ὦ room for strangers. 
Ξένων, a proper name. 


O. 


"Oxvos, delay. 

"Oxyos, -ἡ, ov, idle, cowardly. 
nevertheless. 

qually, ete. 
mountain. 









ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


Opes, the watery or serous part 
“Of milk. 

Οὔκουν, not therefore, so not. 

Οὐκοῦν, therefore, according- . 
ly. 

Οὔρος, ὦ mountain. 

Οὐρός, ὦ trench. 

Oipa, tail. 

Otpa, boundaries. 


ἘΠ 


Πατροκτόνος, parricidal. 

Πατρόκτονος, slain by a father. 

Πείθω, to persuade. 

Πειθώ, persuasion, ete. 

Πίων, fat. 

Πιών, 1, aor.; 2, part. of πίνω. 

Πλατάγη, rattle. 

Πλαταγή, rattling sound. 

Πλυνός, washing-trough. 

Πλύνος, washed. Schol. Aris- 
tophanes’ Plut. 1062. 

Ποῖος, ποία, ποῖον, of what na- 
ture ὃ 

Ποιός, -ά, -ov, of α certain na- 
ture, kind, ete. 

Iloros, a drinking-bout ; ca- 
rousal. 

Ποτός, -7, -ov, verb, adj. of πίνω, 
drunk, for drinking. 

IIpwroyovos, first-born. 

IIpwroyoves, bringing forth 
Jirst. 

IIpwroroxos, first-born. 

ΠΡρωτοτόκος, bearing her first- 
born. 


ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


Πυῤῥός, flame-colored. 

Πύῤῥος, Pyrrhus, a man’s | 
name. 

Πῶρος, -ov, tufa-stone. 

Πωρός, -d, -ov, blind; mvisera- 
ble. 


ῬῚ 

Ῥινή, file. 

‘Pivn, shark. Joh. Phil. 

Ῥίπη, town-wall. 

‘Pury, blast of wind. EKust. p. 
301. 

“Ῥοδών, a rosebud. 

‘Podwr, ἡ, Rhodon, mase. prop. 
name. 


Ῥόδιος, adj, LRhodian, of 
Rhodes. 
“Podws, subst., Lhodius, a 


river. 


>. 


Σάρων, -wvos, ὦ lewd fellow. 

Sapav, from caipw, sweeping. 

Σῆς, gen. fem. of cos. 

Sys, α moth. 

Σκάφη, ὦ hole, trench. 

Σκαφή, a digging. 

Σκύμνος, lion’s whelp. 

Σκυμνός, young of every other 
wild beast. 

Σπαρτός, -ή, -ov, sown, scat- 

tered. 
Σπάρτος, the shrub. 





Srapvry, a bunch of grapes. 


123 


Σταφύλη, the level or the 
plummet in a carpenter's 
bench. 

Συνοικία, ὦ community. 

Συνοίκια, a public feast in hon- 
or of Theseus. 

Συρμός, 1, anything that draws, 
drags, or tears along with 
violence ; 2, fashion, mode. 

Σύρμοός, Syrmus, a proper 
name. 


Τ: 


Ταυροκτόνος, slaying bulls. 

Tavpoxtovos, killed ὄψα bull. 

Τηλεμάχος, fighting from afar: 

Τηλέμαχος, ἃ name (son of 
Ulysses). 

Τηλεφανής, appearing afar. 

Τηλεφάνης, Telephanes, a prop. 
name. 

Topos, cutting. 

Τόμος, & volume. 

Topos, piercing, thrilling. 

Topos, ὦ borer used in trying 
for water. 

Τροχός, ὦ wheel, ete. 

Tpoxos, ὦ running course. 


ἊΣ 


Ὑβός, -η; -ov, hump-backed. 

*Y Bos, the bunch or hump of 
a camel. 

"YBpis, insolence. 

‘YBpic, a night-bird of prey. 


124 


Φ. 
Φαιδρός;-α,-ον, beaming, bright. 
ζαῖδρος, Phedrus, a pr. name. 
Φόρος, ὦ tribute, tax. 

Popes, bearing, carrying. 

Φυλακή, ὦ watching or guard- 
ing a watch. 

Φυλάκη, Phylace, a city. 


X. 
Χαλαζοβόλος, showering hail ; 
νέφη. 


Again, many proper 


substantives by transposition of the accent. 


instance: — 


᾿Ακέστης, from ἀκεστὴς. 

ἤλρητος Ἀπ ᾽᾿Αρήτη; from ἀρητὸς, 
ἀρητὴ. 

Αὔγη; from αὐγὴ. 

Βαῖος, from βαιὸς. 

Γλαῦκος, from γλαυκὸς. 

Γόργος and Τοργὼ, from γορ- 
γὺς. 

Διογένης, from διογενὴς. 

Εὐπείθης, from εὐπειθὴς. 


ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


XaraloBoros, stricken with 
hail. 

Χαροπό-, -yn, τον, glad-eyed, 
bright-eyed. 


Χάροπος, ἃ man’s name. 
‘ 


Q. 


tom, the shoulder. 
Ops, raw, rough, ete. 
‘Oxpos, pale. 

ὮΩχρος, paleness. 





nouns are formed from 
For 


Κλεῖτος, from κλειτὸς. 

Λεῦκος, from λευκὸς. 

Λῶτος, from λωτὸς. 

Μεγασθένης, from μεγασθενὴς. 

Πύῤῥος and Πύῤῥα, from πυῤῥὸς;, 
-ρὰ. 

Σμεῖκρος OY Σμῖκρος, from σμι- 
κρὸς. 

Φαῖδρος and Φαίδρα, from φαι- 





δρὸς, -δρὰ . 


In like manner, to this day, many nouns become 


proper simply by a change of the accent, some of 
which are either local and idiomatic, so to speak, 
to certain places, whilst other nouns are common 
to all the Greeks. For instance: Χρῦσος, from 
xpvaos, like χρύσης (IA. a) and ““Χρῦσος Εἰσιδό- 


’ 


ACCENT AND QUANTITY. $25 


tov ᾿Αθηναῖος ἢ (Olyp. 236), found in an Attic in- 
scription. Σταῦρος, from σταυρός. Λάμπρος, from 
λαμπρός. Φόρος, from dopds. Ῥίζος, from ῥιζόεις, 
whence the “ ῥιζοῦς θεσσαλίας χώρα." Σῖμος, from 
σιμὸς, Whence Σίμων Σιμωνίδης, Σιμμίας Σίμμιχος (a 
diminutive Bceotian appellation), and many others 
which I might enumerate, as well as numberless 
other forms or innovations of the accent both in 
ancient and modern Greek, which show the care 
we ought to exercise in pronouncing Greek. 

Now, many believe that the ancient Greeks 
pronounced the verses, such as ‘‘ the hexameters” 
and ‘the iambic” simply according to the “‘quanti- 
ty of the syllables,” and that they entirely over- 
looked or neglected the accent. But this does not 
seem so certain, and there are many things that go 
to show that the Greeks, in pronouncing the verses, 
never neglected or overlooked the accent. 

No language ever uses in poetry “an accentual 
prosody” directly opposite and antagonistic to 
the one in prose. In pronouncing Latin verse 
we sometimes overlook or, so to speak, neglect 
the natural accent of the words for the sake of 
the rhythm. 

But this fact by no means proves the necessity 
of pronouncing Greek verse in like manner. In 
the first place, who assures us that Virgil himself 
pronounced his verses in the manner now preva- 
lent? We can only form a meagre idea from 


126 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


Quintilian concerning Latin versification, from 
the fact that he did not speak in detail about 
these things. Now, Geldart affirms that just θ6- 
cause the Latin accent, however fallaciously ap- 
plied to Greek, does in a remarkable manner 
tend to preserve to a great extent (though by no 
means completely) the quantity of syllables, the 
notion has arisen that it could not be otherwise 
preserved. That this notion is completely false. 
is practically shown even in Latin, in which we 
have to recognize, and do recognize, the length 
of the many long syllables, which it is impossible 
even according to the Latin system to accent. It 
is, besides, a well-known fact that many distin- 
guished Kuropean scholars asserted that we ought 
by no means to neglect accent in pronouncing 
Latin verse. Again, Homer lengthened by means 
of the accent not only the short syllable in the 
arsis, but also in the thesis, as Αἰόλου, and so on. 
He likewise shortened, as we have already re- 
marked, the syllable before or after the accent 
simply by means of it. He at times used the 
syllable accented on the thesis as a short one, as 
(| πποὺυς ade| ται (IX. A, 192) instead of adnrar; 
sometimes even the accent causes one d to be 
omitted, as in Αχιλεὺς, and so on. And, in 
short, the ancient poetry was by no means sep- 
arated from the accents of prose. (See Herr- 
mann, ‘‘ Klementa doctrine metrice.”) , 


ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 159: 


Aristotle says that the iambic metre is mostly 
used in common conversation. ‘‘O δ᾽ ἴαμβος αὐτή 
ἐστιν ἡ λέξις ἡ τῶν πολλῶν : διὸ μάλιστα πάντων TOV 
μέτρων ἰαμβεῖα φθέγγονται λέγοντες." “For the 
iambic measure is most of all adapted to conver- 
sation. And as an evidence of this we most fre- 
quently speak in iambic in familiar discourse with 
each other.” Plutarch says concerning the “iam- 
bic measure” “ 
δὲ ddovrau: .. . .. τὸ δὲ Tapa THY κροῦσιν λέγεσθαι: 


τὰ μὲν λέγονται παρὰ κροῦσιν, τὰ 


(εἶναι τὸ αὐτὸ καὶ ἡ παρακαταλογή.") Oekonomos 
says, “ παρακαταλογή is what the moderns call 
“ recitativum,” a sort of address, in which the poems 
are EO as the Italians say, ‘quasi parlan- 
do,” whilst he term “καταλογάδην ” and “ἡ κατα- 
λογή᾽ means “τὸ τὰ ἄσματα οὐκ ὑπὸ μέλει λέγειν." 
Dionysius of Halicarnassus describes the mov- 
ableness, transposing, or changing of the accents 
which takes place in the odes. Now, what differ- 
ence there exists between hexameters and iambics 
on the one hand and lyric odes on the other is 
evident. . Demosthenes himself distinguishes the 
“metrical” (as, for instance, the Homeric verses) 
from those that are sung, such as the odes of 
Pindar, the “dithyrambic,” the ‘choruses,” the 
strophes and others which are uttered, so to 
speak, by a varying melody of the voice: ““Ὥστε 
καὶ τοὺς τῶν ἐμμέτρων Kal τοὺς τῶν ἀδομένων 


Ν Ἀ Ν - , ε , 
ποιητὰς καὶ πολλοὺς των συγγραφέων ὑποθέσεις 


128 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


τὰ ἐκείνων ἔργα τῆς αὑτῶν μουσικῆς πεποιῆσθαι" 
(Aoy. ἐπιτάφ). Dionysius of Halicarnassus, treat- 
ing of the changes which are necessary for the 
composition or formation of harmony, teaches 
that they must be‘ “διάφοροι καὶ ai traces τῆς 
φωνῆς, αἱ καλούμεναι προσῳδίαι, κλέπτουσαι TH 
ποικιλίᾳ τὸν κόρον." So that, recommending the 
same rules for the formation of harmony in both 
metrical and prose writings, he distinctly asserts 
the importance and the necessity of respecting 
the accent both in metrical and prose writings. 
In another passage he says, " Movoruxy τις ἦν Kal ἡ 
τῶν πολιτικῶν sii bib ἐπιστήμη, τῷ ποσῳ p διαφέρουσα 
τῆς ἐν ὠδαῖς καὶ ὀργάνοις, οὐχί τῷ ποιῷ" καὶ γὰρ ἐν 
ταύτῃ καὶ μέλος ἔχουσιν at λέξεις καὶ ῥυθμὸν καὶ 
μεταβολὴν καὶ πρέπον." Now, as a modern Greek 
says, if the orators pronounced according to 
rhythm and according to the accents, why not 
the poets also? And if the speeches of the orators 
must be read according to the accents, why not 
read the poems in like manner? » Dionysius also 
compares many rhetorical passages of the same 
rhythm with poetical verses of like rhythm, for 
instance that of Demosthenes, 
“Myr ἰδίας ἔχθρας μηδεμιᾶς ἕνεκα," 

and says that it is exactly an elegiac pentameter, 
just like 


“ Κοῦραι ἐλαφροπόδων iyve aeypdpevat.” 


He compares in like manner many other passages 


ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 129 


of the same orator, saying merely that these prose 
passages differ from the poems, inasmuch as the 
former are “‘ poetical, rhythmical, and melodious,” 
whilst the poems are in rhythm — that is to say 
‘accordant in harmony” and “according to meas- 
ure” and “musical” — “ ἔῤῥυθμα καὶ ἔμμετρα καὶ 
μελωδικά," because the poems possess in succession 
similar metres and rhythms arranged according 
to verse, period, or strophe, whilst the rhetorical 
phrases or the so-called ‘‘oratorical cadences” have 
rhythm, but not the same in succession. On the 
contrary, they are irregular and wandering, and 
mixed obscurely with others, so that the rhetorical 
phrase becomes, as Aristotle termed it, “ μήτε ἔμ- 
μετρος μήτε ἄῤῥυθμος," neither ‘metrical nor void 
of rhythm.” 

We must remark that Dionysius, who is justly 
called a+very critical scholar, by no means con- 
sidered the poems as void of accent, as some have 
supposed, because he would naturally have said so. 
_Oekonomos gays that one can observes many 
other hexameter passages in Demosthenes, such as, 

Tov γὰρ ἔν ᾿Αμφίσσῃ πόλεμον, Ov ὅν εἰς “EXdrevav. 


Ἦλθε Φίλιππος.... 
Also 


Τῶν ἄλλων Ἑλλήνων πολλάκις ἐστεφανῶσθαι (περὶ Στεφ.), 
as Ὅ7611 ὯΒ᾽ in many other writers, for instance St. 
Chrysostom : — 
Κἀν τῶν ἡλιακῶν ἀκτίνων λαμπροτέρα οὖσα τύχῃ; .. .. 


Τοῦ καπνοῦ προσέφλεξε, καὶ ἡμαύρωσεν ἅπασαν (περὶ Ἵερωσ.), ete. 


130 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


Aristiades, the Κοὶντιλιανὸς (Quintilian), recom- 
mends Terrapin στοχάζεσθαι ἐννοίας τε πρεπού- 
σης; καὶ λέξεως, καὶ ἁρμονίας, καὶ ῥυθμοῦ: τροκα- 
θηγεῖται μὲν ἡ ἔννοια πάντως, ἧς ἄνευ οὔτε αἵρεσις. 
οὔτε φυγή τινος ἐγγίνεται" ταύτης δὲ μίμημα λέξις, 
καὶ πρὸς τὴν τοῦ πέλας ἀκοήν τε καὶ πειθὼ πρώτως 
ἀναγκαία: αὕτη δὲ ὀξύτητητάς τε καὶ βαρύτητας 
προσλαβοῦσα μετὰ διαστημάτων, συγκεχυμένην 
(perhaps συγκεχυμένων) μὲν, ἐγέννησεν ἁρμονίαν " 
λόγοις δὲ τοῖς συμφώνοις τεταγμένων ῥυθμὸν." 
Now, if accent, which tends to mark the word 
clearly, were overlooked in the recitation of 
poems, it is evident that so much confusion and 
doubt would have resulted as to render the mean- 
ing of the verse extremely obscure. Aristotle 
(350 B.C.) likewise recommends as the first excel- 
lence of poetical recitation the clearness of words. 
Now, how can words possess clearness if we do not 
respect their accents? ‘“H yap λέξις, ἤτοι ἡ διὰ 
TOV Sind ser? ἑρμηνεία, τὴν αὐτὴν ἔχει δύναμιν καὶ 
ἐπὶ τῶν ἐμμέτρων καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων." Quincetilian 
recommends ‘that poems should be read in such 
a manner that the reader may appear rather to 
be pronouncing a “prose passage” and ‘ without 
metre,” whilst the prose passages of the orators 
should be recited just like poems; that is to say, 
neither the rhythm of the poems ought to be 
sung, nor the harmony of the words (in prose) 


Θ᾽ 
to be confounded with the stupid and rude or 


ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 131 


unpolished conversation of the rabble. That is 
- what Cesar meant, saying, ‘if you sing the poem 
you sing it badly, if you read it you sing it well.” 
Finally, not one of the old grammarians recom- 
mends the reading of the poems simply according 
to the quantity ἐξ syllables. On the ‘contrary, 
Tryphon (Τρύφων) censures the practice, calling 
it “τὰ κατὰ πόδα, Kakouerpa.” And Erasmus . 
also distinguished accent from quantity, and com- 
plained because in his church neither the quan- 
tity of the syllables nor the accent of the words 
was kept with accuracy, especially in ‘ musical 
odes.” ‘Accentus non indicat doctrinam quantitatis 
syllabice” .... and ‘‘ Chorus ecclesiasticus nec in 
psalms recitandis nec m canticis solemnibus ullum 
habet brevium aut longarum delectum, ne tonorum 
quidem admodum magnam rationem,” etc. (Dialog. 
de rect. Ling. Greece. pronunt. ) 
It becomes evident, therefore, that the custom- 
ary pronunciation of those who pronounce sim- 
ply according to the quantity of syllables cannot 
be the safe or cena way of pronunciation. 
“ For what purpose,”— a modern Greek exclaims, 
tee TOE what purpose - were the poets of Grasse 
compelled to compose metres (and especially the 
heroic) in every respect and directly opposite to 
the accentual prosody of the words, and, so to 
speak, without any foundation in the very nature 
of the language? Or, perchance, did they not 


a »" 
“ε 


132 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


compose verses for their fellow-citizens, whom 
they sought to teach and to please? What more 
than the neglect or the absence of accents from 
the poems could render them incomprehensible 
to the many?” 

Vossius and his followers blamed the so-called 
“πολιτικοὺς oTtyous” (popular verses) of the mod- 
ern Greeks, which possess rhythm simply by 
means of the accent and the number of the syl- 








lables. But it becomes evident from these popular 


verses that our fathers, in pronouncing the verses 
of Homer and of the other poets, observed also 
the accent together with the quantity, because 
the ‘‘ popular verses” are only imitations of many 
Homeric and other old verses pronounced simply 
according to accent without regard to quantity. 


_/ Attention to the quantity of sy anne had dis- 


* appeared from the common cony ersation of the 


᾿ ) multitude at the time even when the language had 
X 


passed its prime. But even whilst the language 
was at its acme, the unpolished multitude did not 
distinguish between the long and short with as 
much emphasis and precision as the poets and the 
orators were accustomed to do. Oekonomos says, 
that many syncopated words extant in both the 
poets and the orators give evidence of the fact, 
8. g. οἴομαι and οἴδασθα into οἶμαι and οἶσθα, κεβλὴ 
from κεβαλὴ instead of κεφαλὴ, σαυκῶς from σα- 
βακῶς, βλώσκω instead of μολίσκω (μλόσκω)Ὶ, με- 


ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 4183 


onpBpia from μεσημερία (μεσημρία), χέρνιβον 
(χερόνιβον), Λαπίθης (λαο-πίθης), Λαγέτης, Λάγος 
(λαὸν ἄγων), and numberless other forms, both 
dialectic and common to all, as well as those 
words resulting from syncope and synizesis, and 
these Attic words which, although terminating 
in a long vowel, accent the antepenult, 6. g.— 
εὔγεως, Mevédews, etc., show “that the multi- 
tude_pronounced_rather_hurriedly and not so 
clearly and distinctly the long vowel. sounds.” 
The circumflex, pronounced somewhat hurriedly, 
was confounded easily with the acute, as in the 
Homeric, τὸ μὲν οὗ instead of ov or ov, as well as 
οὔτις, transformed into οὗτις (Od. 1. 366). 

But the comedians, imitating the common con- 
versation of the people, made many innovations 
or changes in the rhythm, at times shortening the 
long syllables, then introducing trochaic and 
iambic together with anapestic measures, thus 
endeavoring to imitate the voluble manner of con- 
versation extant among the common classes. 

A modern Greek asserts that after the language 
had passed its prime the distinction_ between_the 
long and short syllables was much neglected. 
Finally, the absence of great—poets,-the mr 
of the theatres, the confusion of dialects, and. other 
like changes, caused the general neglect of quan- 
tity. About the year 170 (B. C.) Pausanias, a 
pupil of Herodes the Athenian, somewhat distin- 


134 ACCENT AND QUANTITY, 


guished as a ‘‘stump-speaker,” was often blamed 
because he confounded long and short syllables, 
just as his Cappadocean compatriots were wont 
to do. But this did not at all interfere with 
the genuine prosody of the spoken language. 
‘Poetical prosody” is one thing and “ prosody 
of accents” is another. The former deals with 
the quantity of syllables, the latter_considers the 
location of special_stress. The former changes 
with the » rhythm of the poem, the latter has a 
fixed position in every word. After “ poetical 
prosody” became less prominent, the prosody 
of accent remained an inseparable peculiarity. 
Qur contemporary poets used this_as_the founda- 
tion of verse-making, dividing the metres of the 
verses no more according to quantity, which the 
ignorant and unpolished multitude could no longer 
appreciate, but only according to the accent and 
the number of the syllables, from which arises the 
so-called “popular rhythm,” which has a very 
close connection with the musical rhythm of the 
ancients. ‘Those who composed these verses bor- 
rowed, so to speak, the peculiarity of this versi- 
fication from_the ancients, 1: 1. 6. from the trochaic 
metre of " Hschylus’ Pers. : 





ΠΤ βαθυζώνὼν ἄ ἄνασσα Περσίδων ὑ ὑπερτάτῃ, 


Mijrep ἡ ἡ Ἐέρξου γήράιὰ, χαῖρε Δαρείου γύνάι. 


Having simply kept the accents, they formed verses 
of fifteen syllables, 6. g. 


ACCENT AND QUANTITY. ΠῚ ἢ Ὁ 


Υἱὸς Αἰνείου γνήσιος ᾿Ασκάνιος τὴν κλῆσιν 
‘Amo Κρεούσης γυναικὸς, τῆς θυγατρὸς Πριάμου, 
Τὴν πόλιν Γάλβαν ᾧκησε σὺν τοῖς περιληφθεῖσι. 
For this reason Eustathius (1118 A. D.) wer 
these verses of fifteen syllables ‘“ trochaic verses.” 
Again, Oekonomos says that from the iambic of 
Dente chanice which has two metres, 6. g. 











Δήμητερ, ayvav ὀργίων 
ἔάνασσα, συμπαραστάτει. 
Verses of eight syllables were formed, such as 
those sesanoted by Symeon’ Paiepasains about 
1050 A. D. ee 
"Amo ῥυπαρῶν χειλέων 
"Amo βδελυρᾶς καρδίας 
"Amo ἀκαθάρτου γλώσσης 
Ἔκ ψυχῆς ἐῤῥυπωμένης 
Ζ4έξαι δέησιν Χριστέ μου 


And again, from the same syllables, simply by 
changing the accent, the AER ORY of the verses 
was also changed by “συζυγίας. 


Νῦν ai Δυνάμεις οὐρανῶν 


> ’ . , 
Av@pwros συγχορεύσατε 


136 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


According to the Anacreontic, 


᾿Ερῶ τε δῆτα κ᾽ οὐκ ἐρῶ 

Καὶ μαίνομαι « οὐ μαίνομαι. 
Alexander. Apollinarius (3850 Δ. D.) is generally 
so-called “popular verses.” He rendered, at any 
rate, into hexameter verse the psalter, and, in fact, 
many of the writings of the Church. Professor 
Sophocles states that the ““ἀκάθιστος ὕμνος " is the 
office of the Virgin, partly read and partly sung, 
all standing, on the Saturday of the fifth week in 
Lent. And as Georgius Pisides (A. D. 617) was 
the readiest versifier of that period, it has been 
conjectured that he was the author of the prin- 
cipal part of it. The distinctive portions of this 
office are its twenty-four οἶκοι, houses, stations. 
ἜΠΟΣ ΨΗΣ Raa is accentual, i. 6. 





s Φ Φ 
¥ / 
Ayyedos πρωτοστατης 
3 2 / 
Ovpavobev ἐπέμφθη 
2 a a / 
Εἰπεῖν τῇ Θεοτόκῳ τὸ Χαῖρε" 
| Κ \ Ν a. ? / a 
_ Kai συν tn ἀσωμάτῳ φωνῇ 
i ’ ’ a , 
᾿ Σωματούμενον σε θεωρῶν, Κύριε, 
ἌΝ / , a , Ν 4. ἃ a 
Ἐξίστασο καὶ ἰστατο κραυγάζων πρὸς αὑτὴν τοιαῦτα. 


However, many scholars suppose that it was 
Apollinarius (350 A. D.) who composed this in- 


ACCENT AND QUANTITY. ERT 


_stead of Pisides. Compare with the above the 
Anacreontic verses of similar “ συζυγίας," such as 


a > A ’ 
Πέμπετε τῶν δ᾽ aw οἴκων, ---- Ἡπνοιᾶισι ζεφύρου, 
> 
@oas axatous ἐπ᾽ οἶδμα λίμνας ( Ευριπ.) 
Δεῦρο καλεῖν νόμος ἐσ χορόν 
3 / Ἁ / 3 an y+ 
Aotrict Kat NoyNass Axavav — avaktas * 
“Ελλάδος ἐνναέτησιν 
“Αλίου προσέβαλεν ἅρμα (Bier ) 


Many other examples could be brought to show 
that many of the odes, especially of the Church, 
are fashioned exactly after many lyric and other 
odes of the ancients. 

Rhyme, which is very common in modern 
Greek, is recognized by the classical poets, i. e. 
(Sophocles, -Aj. 765, 766) | 


ΩΣ Α Ν A 9 ’ 
Eyvaxa yap δη φωτὸς ἠπατημενη, 
Καὶ τῆς παλαιᾶς χάριτος ἐκβεβλημένη. 


And the following in the ‘ Tliad” (8, 382), which 
is what Oekonomos calls ““ὁμοιοτέλευτα εἰς τὴν 
τελευτὴν ἢ: : — 


Εὖ μέν τις δόρυ θηξάσθω, εὖ δ᾽ ἀσπίδα θέσθω 
. θηξάσθω..... θέσθω. 


Again, in the “Iliad” (ψ, 152): -- 


138 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


. e Φ 
v , A ᾽ τὺ ες» I 
Qs εἰπὼν ev χερσὶ κόμην ETapoto φίλοιο 
oye A Se a C43 δ 5S ’ὔ 
NKEV, TOLTL OE πᾶσιν UP ἱμερον ὠρσε γοοιο. 
Ν \ 3 <2 4 Μ / ? 
Καὶ vu « οδυρομεένοισιν ἔδυ φάος ᾿Ηελίοιο. 


@irow.... γόοιο .... Ἠελίοιο. 
Again, in the ‘Tliad” (φ, 523 -25):— 


Ν 3 ’ὔ a ‘\ a A 
ἄστεος αἰθομένοιο, θεῶν δε € μῆνις ἀνῆκεν 

a / a A 
Πᾶσι δ᾽ ἔθηκε πόνον, πολλοῖσι Se κήδε ἐφῆκεν, 
7 > ἣν ’ ? 
“ὥς ᾿Αχιλεὺς Τρώεσσι πόνον καὶ κήδε᾽ ἔθηκεν 


᾿Ανῆκεν .... ἐφῆκεν .. .. ἔθηκεν... 


In the ‘‘ Odyssey” we find instances of rhyme 
(Od. 0, 147, 148, 111, 112, 125, 126; 1, 148; x, 44; 
A, 604, etc.) See also Herder’s “ Ursachen des 
gesunkenen Geschmacks bey den verschiedenen 
Voélkern,” ete., pages 278 — 290, and Sulzer’s Dic- 
tionary, article “ Reim.” 


CHAPTER X. 


THE ASPIRATE. 


Tus is no longer sounded in modern Greek; 
and if it had any sound at all in ancient Greek 
it must have been extremely evanescent. ‘This is 
evident from the fact that Aristotle says, — 


x Ν Ν / / ἈΝ ? “τὲ x a 
Παρὰ δὲ τὴν προσωδίαν λόγοι μὲν οὐκ εἰσὶν οὔτε τῶν 
/ yx ” / x yy ϑ / 
γεγραμμένων οὔτε τῶν λεγομένων" πλὴν εἰ τινες ολέγοι 
, Ὁ φΦ φΦ ς / 3 ὍΣ Se Ν @ 
γένοιτ᾽ av, οἷον οὗτος ὁ λόγος" Αραγε ἐστι TO οὐ κατα- 
’ » aN / ? a Ν 2 , An / 
AVELS οἰκία ; ναι" OUKOUY TO οὐ καταλύεις του καταλῦεις 
> ΠΝ ͵ ¥ ue δ eee, , ἀν 
ἀπόφασις ; ναί" epnoas δε εἶναι τὸ οὗ καταλύεις οἰκίαν " 
e a. fF + ? ’ ε ἮΝ ΄ A > ‘ 
ἡ οἰκία apa atopacus. ᾿ς δὲ λυτέον δῆλον" ov yap | 


Ν Ν Ν 3 7 Ν Ν ’ ς / 
ταυτὸ σημαίνει TO μεν ὀξύτερον TO δὲ βαρύτερον ῥηθεν. 


It becomes evident, therefore, that in the times 
of Aristotle, the golden age of Grecian learning, 
the pronunciation of the rough οὗ (οὗ καταλύεις) 
differed little from the pronunciation of the smooth 
ov. 

It is probable that the only difference between 
the rough and smooth breathing may have been 
that it was the custom to turn x, 7, τ into x, ¢, θ 
before syllables which had the rough breathing, 
which is still the practice of the modern Greeks, 


” 140 THE ASPIRATE. 


whereas before the smooth breathing these conso- 
nants remained unaltered. But in the Ionic dia- 
lect this difference of usage did not prevail. 

In modern Greek, though the rough breathing 
is not heard, it affects the pronunciation of a pre- 
ceding tenuis; and several compounds, as ἐφέτος 
from ἐπ᾽ ἔτος, μεθαύριον for μεταύριον. 


ἘΠ a 8d AI 


a 


aioe 





cae 


\ Υ ἰ f ] 
\ CALI R, OF | 
CHAPTER“E ΠΝ 4 τῇ 


THE ALPHABET. 


THE modern Greek letters, breathings, accents, and marks 
of punctuation are the same as in classical Greek. 


; LETTERS. 

FIGURES. NAMES. A 
A,a "Adda Alpha. 
B, B Βῆτα Veta. 
ΤΥ Toppa Ghama. 
A, ὃ Δέλτα Thélta. 
Ἐν Ὲ "E ψιλόν Epsilén. 
Z, Znra Lett. 
H, 7 *Hra Eta. 
@, 0 Θῆτα Théta. 
i ὁ ᾿Ιῶτα Keta. 
Κι, κ Κάππα Kapa. 
A, Adp Pda Lamotha. 
M, p Md Me. 
N, v Nd Ne. 
ἘΞ, € Ἐπ Ke. 
O, 9, Ὄ μικρόν Omecroén. 
Il, π it Pe. 
P, p Po “λό. 
=, σ Σίγμα Ségma. 

bak! υλα Tav Taff. 
Y, v Ὗ ψιλόν Ipsilon. 
Φ, φ Di Phe. 
X, x Xt fe (khe). 
WY, wy WV Pse. 
Q, w Ὦ μέγα Omega. 


CHAPTER II. 
SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 


LA } 
is pronounced like the French dh, or like the English @ in the 
words car, far, father, calm. 

Schleicher observes that ὦ was frequently represented by ε 
oro. This is more especially noticed in the dialectic forms: 
βέρεθρον ἔρσην for βάραθρον ἄρσην. We have κλέος for xAdFas, 
from grdvas, whéFw or πλέω from pldvami, ete. In modern 
Greek we have τίποτα (tépota) for τίποτε (tépote). 

Geldart gives the form στροτός dvw ὀνεχώρησε = στρατὸς ἄνω 
ἀνεχώρησε (stratés ah'no anehérese). In modern Greek we 
have καταβόθρα for καταβάθρα (katavah'thra), ἁρμαθιά for dp- 
μαθιά (ormahthedh). Schleicher observes that the three ter- 
minations of contracted verbs, -dw, -éo, and 6w were originally 
but one, viz. -aw. In modern Greek, at least in the language 
of the common people, -éw is always represented by -dw. We 
have ζητάει for ζητεῖ (2666), περιπατᾶτε for περιπατεῖτε (peripa- 
téete), and so on. Geldart states that @ in ancient Greek is 
seldom weakened into v, yet this appears to have been the 
case in νύξ (nia), ὄνυξ (Onex), κύκλος (kéklos), μύλος (mélos), 
and a few other words, as μύσταξ (mis’tax), which also appears 
in the form μάσταξ (mdhstax) and βύθος (véthos), which is 
also written βάθος (vdhthos). In modern Greek we get σκύ- 


ες gos (sképhos) for σκάφος (skahphos) or σκάφη (sképhé). So, 


again, we have the diminutive appellation dduov, as ywpadvov 
(horahpheon), frequently represented by ὕφιον, as ζωύΐφιον 
(zoépheon). The ancient Greeks prefixed ὦ to many words 
(a euphonicum), as ἀβληχρός (ahvlechrés), ἀσταφίς (astaphis), 


SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. as 


ἀστεροπή (ahsteropé) for βληχρός (vlechrés), σταφίς (staphis), 
στεροπή (steropé). In modern Greek we have ἀβρότανον 
(ahvurotanon), ἀβράμυλον (ahvramelon) for βράμυλον (urdh- 
melon), BpaBvrov (vrahvelon). 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


᾿Αδάμας, ahthamas. ᾿Αγορανόμος, ahghorahnomos. 
᾿Αδάμαστος, ahthadhmastos. “ABpoBaros, ahvrévalhtos. 
*Ados, dhthos. “ABpopos, dhvromos. 
᾿Αγήρατον,; aghiraton. ᾿Αβοήθητος, ahvoethetos. 


᾿Αγράμματος, ahgrdmatos. 


\E 
is intermediate between ὦ and?. Professor Sophocles states 
that it requires the mouth to be moderately opened and the 
breath to proceed horizontally. It is approximately expressed 
by the English e in spend, ferry, or by the French 6. In 
ancient Greek we have the forms ὀχθρός (ochthrds) for ἐχθρός 
_ (ecthros). In modern Greek the same forms are still preva- 
lent. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


᾿Ἐκδικάζω, ekthekdhzo. Ἔδαφος, ethaphos. 
"Exduxos, €kthekos. “Εδώλιον, ethdleon. 
Ἔκδημος, ¢kthemos. ᾿Εκπέταμαι, ekpétahme. 
᾿Εκγενής; ekghenés. ᾿ΕἘκπέσσω, ekpésso. 
"Exdekis, ékthexis. ᾿Ἐκπηδάω, ekpethdaoh. 
"Exypapa, ekgrahpho. ᾿Εκπίνω, ekpénoh. 


A 

is pronounced like the my or like the English 6 in the 
word be. The followers of Erasmus pronounce ἡ as a long 
6, or like two e’s, or as ay, for the following reasons. 

They say that in all the old inscriptions, before the letter 
ἢ was introduced in the Greek alphabet, we find invariably 
an ¢, i.e: A@EN (A@nvav), MNEMA (μνῆμα), ἘΠῚ TES 
BOYAES KAEOTENES IPOTOS, ete. 


146 SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 


Again, Cratinus wrote βὴ to represent the sound of the 
bleating of sheep. Plato says: “ οὐκ ra ἐχρώμεθα ἀλλὰ € τὸ 
παλαιόν." Sextus says: “συσταλὲν τὸ ἡ γίνεται ε, ἐκταθὲν δὲ τὸ 
ε γίνηται yn.” Sextus seems to regard ἡ and « as essentially 
one and the same letter. The other dialects generally ex- 
press the Ionic 7 by «, as, for instance, βασιλῆα, βασιλέα, etc. 
Finally, the Latin language also renders the Greek ἡ by an 6. 
These are, in short, the reasons which the followers of Eras- 
mus bring as their justification for pronouncing the ἡ as a 
long ε. 

Now, in order that we may ascertain how the letter ἡ 
was pronounced by the ancient Greeks, it is of the highest 
importance to consider, first, from what letters or sounds ἡ 
has resulted. 

a) from a, especially in the Ionic dialect: νηός = vaos, 
νῆσος = νᾶσος (Doric), δευτέρη = δευτέρα, ete. 

8’) from ae, especially in the Doric dialect: τιμῆτε = τι- 
pidete, ὅρη = ὅραε, ζῆν from ζάειν, χρῆται from χράεται; ἥλιος, 
ἀέλιος, α-Ἑέλιος. 

y) from ea: χρυσῆ, χαλκῆ, εὐγενῆ, from χρυσέα, χαλκέα, εὐγενέα. 

5) from ce: δῆλος, ἤλπιζον, ἦλθον, from δέελος (δεξελος), ἐέλπι- 
Lov, ἔελθον, ete. 

é) from a, especially among the Beotians: κὴ δεδύχθη, 
ἱππότη, εὐεργέτης, etc., from καὶ δεδύχθαι ἱππόται, εὐεργέταις. 
The letter ἡ, a scholar says, having resulted from such let- 
ters, it is evident that it was formerly sounded both as an 
6 (sounded as in 26), which pronunciation prevails among the 
greater part of the modern Greeks, and like the French @, 
as in féte, which pronunciation still is prevalent among not 
a few of the modern Greeks, as in ἕηρός, κηρί(ον), oidypo(v), 
μυρί(ον), στήκω, ἔθησα, instead of ἔθηκα, (ἐ)πόνησα, and many 
other words which are pronounced just as ἕερός (xerds), σίδε- 
po(v) (sétheron), κερί(ον) (cheréon), στέκω (stécho), ἔθεσα (éthe- 
sa), (€)rovnoa (epdnesa). Professor Mavrophredes says, the 
ancient Greeks were wont to pronounce ἡ like the French @, 


SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 147 
as in féte, that is, like an ay ONLY in those words in which ἢ 
resulted from ee. That this pronunciation was general among 
the Greeks we have no positive evidence, neither do we 
believe that it was so. Again, by the greater part of the 
Greeks ἡ must have been sounded as the French ὁ (fermé), 
that is, as the word xy = καὶ (pronounced xe). Now, this 
sound of ἡ as an é has a closer resemblance to the letters ae, 
ea, at, from which 7 has resulted, and, besides, it comes nearer 
to 6 (pronounced as in be), into which it afterwards passed 
among the many. This change of the sound of 7 into an 
ι seems to us to have been in use also in the Homeric times, 
as is evident from the words ἰδέ = ἠδέ. However, this pro- 
nunciation of » as an « became still more prevalent about 
the fifth century B. C., and it must have been very common 
also in the common Attic dialect, because in no other way 
is it possible to explain the statement of Plato in Cratylus, 
. 418, 68 a’: “oi μὲν ἀρχαιότατοι ἱμέραν τὴν ἑμέραν ἐκάλουν, οἱ δὲ 
ἑμέραν - οἱ δὲ νῦν ἡμέραν." Compare also in 404: ““ Δημήτηρ μὲν 
φαίνεται κατὰ τὴν δόσιν τῆς ἐδωδῆς, διδοῦσα ὡς μήτηρ Δημήτηρ 
κεκλῆσθαι." 

But about the second and third centuries B. C. the pronun- 
ciation of ἡ as an u became still more prevalent, and was 
generally adopted by all those speaking Greek, as is evident 
from the following Hebrew words: Kithim, Levi, Charmi, 
Lachis, Schilo, Gilo, Dison, Sihon, Hira, which were writ- 
ten in Greek by Κήτιμ, Λευή, Χαρμή, Λάχης, Snrw, Γηλών, Δη- 
σών, Σηών, Ἤρας, in which we plainly see that ἡ was written 
for 1, and, besides, in the MS. of “‘Yzepidov” we may often 
see instances in which 7 is interchanged with «. 

Now, many of the reasons which the followers of Erasmus 
bring to sustain their view of the sound of the letter ἡ are 
by no means conclusive. To begin with, their argument 
concerning the well-known line of Cratinus, 

6 δ᾽ ἠλίθιος ὥσπερ πρόβατον βῆ βῆ λέγων Badi fer,” 
is simply inadmissible, for how do we know that Cratinus 


148 SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 


pronounced £7 exactly after the Erasmian style? Again, 
even if we admit that Cratinus pronounced βῆ exactly as a 
follower of Erasmus would have sounded it, what scholar 
would be willing to accept the imaginary symbol of the in- 
articulate bleating of the sheep as the ground upon which to 
rest the decision of the question, What sound did the cul- 
tured nation of Greece give to the vocal elements of their 
language? 

Again, the Latin language renders ἡ by an « for the simple 
reason that it does not have an ἡ in its alphabet. For this 
reason the Latin has crater for κρατὴρ and poéma for ποίη- 
pa, etc. Again, that ἡ and εἰ were very similar in sound is 
rendered highly probable by the fact that they were inter- 
changed, 6. g. κῆνος and τῆνος for κεῖνος, BovAn and βούλει. 
The Afolians and Dorians were wont to render by ἡ the εἰ of 
other dialects, 1. 6. μναμῆον, σαμῆον, ἦχον, jAKor, φιλήτω, νοήτω; in 
like manner the modern Greeks write ἀηδὼν instead of ἀειδών, 
ἀείδω, aidw (adv). The Beeotians, on the contrary, rendered 
by εἰ the η of other dialects, i. 6. φίλειμι, γέλειμι, ἵστειμι, τίθειμι 
(Doric φίλημι, ete.), ἀγείοχα, εἰμὶ (ἠμὶ and “0116 ἔμμι and éopi 
from éut), ποειτὰς instead of ποητὰς, and so on. Numerous 
examples might be brought to show the similarity of sound 
of ἡ, εἰ, and 1; for instance, in Homer we find ἠείδη, ἠήδει, 
ἠείδε. Again, we find the same word written in three dif- 
ferent Ways, i. 6. σκεπηνὸς, σκεπεινὸς, σκεπινὸς ; ἀλήτης, ἀλείτης, 
ἀλίτης. We have, again, ὀμβρινὸς and ὀμβρηνὸς, κεφαλῆνος and 
κεφαλῖνος, σπαθήνης and σπαθίνης, κεμασῆνες and Kapacives, ἵκω 
and ἥκω, σκήπτω and σκίπτω, τάπης and rams, and so on. Now 
Ross thinks that the substitution of ἡ for « does not prove 
that it was sounded like an ay; for the Latin e, Geldart 
states, very often represented an εἰ, and on the other hand 
tended to become and therefore probably closely resembled 
in sound the simple «. So we have ¢ristes from tristeis, writ- 
ten tristis. We have also the following words written with 
ει instead of «, i.e. omneis, treis, parteis, ete.; and not only 


SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 149 


so, but in the Byzantine period designatus became in Greek 
δισιγνάτος (thesegndthos). Ross gives an inscription found at 
Carpathus in which ἱρώων stands for ἡρώων. Professor Mul- 
lach thinks that the very close resemblance between « and 7 
is evident in the parallel forms ἥκω and ἵκω, ἐπίβολος and ἐπή- 
βολος (where », Geldart says, seems to be simply + lengthened 
by the combined force of the accent and the ictus), γίγας and 
γηγενής, Which two forms we have together in the Batracho- 
myomachia, — 
Tryevéwr ἀνδρῶν μιμούμενοι ἔργα γιγάντων, --- 

πίδας from πηδάω, ἠδὲ and ἰδές. Plutarch writes Palilia, ἸΠαλή- 
ua. Quirinus is translated Κυρήνιος, and Scipio into Σκηπίων. 

Again, though the words κάμιλος for κάμηλος, ἐλάκτησε for 
ἐλάκτισε in the New Testament are no doubt errors in orthog- 
raphy, yet they show, as Geldart states, the early prevalence 
of the confusion of y with . Again, the scholiast on Eurip. 
Pheen. 685 tells us expressly that before the time of Euclides 
. was used for 7, ο for w. These facts conclusively show the 
very early pronunciation of 7 as an ε. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


ἮΗθικός, ethekds. Ἡμερονύκτιον, emeroneécteon. 
*HOos, éthos. Ἡμέρα, emérah. 

Ἡδύφωνος, ethéphonos. Ἡσυχία, esechéah. 

Ἡδονή, ethone. Ἡμίτμητος, emétmetos. 
Ἠλίθιος, elétheos. Ἡμίονος, emeonos. 
Ἡμερομηνία, emeromenca. ἩἩμιθαλής, emethales. 


. Α .Ψ wit . . 
is pronounced unquestionably like the French 3, or like the 
English ὁ in the words machine, marine. 

Liddell and Scott mention that . was easily interchanged 
with εἰ, whence forms like «Aw and ἴλλω. It was also inter- 
changed with or written for ἡ, and we have instances in the 
parallel forms of ἥκω and kw, ἐπήβολος and ériBodos. In fact 


\ 


150 SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 


Plato, Nigidius, Quintilian, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and 
others so plainly indicate the pronunciation of 1, that there 
can be no dispute in regard to it. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


᾿Ιοδνεφής, tothnephes. "TovOos, tonthos. 
Ἶμπος, Upos. Ἱππομανής, ippomanés. 
*Invos, Upnos. ὁ Ἱππομάχος, uppomdhos. 
Ἴπνιος, Upnios. Ἱπποπόλος tppopolos. 
Ἱππαστής, tppastés. Ἱπποδρύμιον, tppothrémion. 
"TovAos, toolos (pron. 00 as in moon). Ἱππικός, ippikos. 
Ἱππάσιμος, ippadsimos. Ἵππιος, tppios. 
᾿ἸΙοπλόκαμος, toplékamos. Ἱππολοφία, tppolophia. 
({O and Q 3: 


have nearly the same sound, and this sound is represented 
by o in constant. 

That we may accurately determine the original sound of ὦ, 
we must determine from what letter or letters w has resulted. 
Professor Mavrophedes remarks that w resulted: 

a) from oo, i. 6. ὠνόμαζον, ὥμοσα, etc. from ὀονόμαζον, ὁ ὀύμοσα. 

βΎ from a, just as o resulted from ἅ : 1. 6. φέρω, λέγω, ete. 
from φέρα-μι, λέγα-μι; apo-s, Sanscr. dma-s , δώδεκα, Sanscr. 
dvadagan , πτωχόύ-ς (ver. πταχ-: TTAK-, πτήσσω) 5 ὥρα, Germ. 
Jahr — “ καὶ ἐν τῷ ἐπιρρηματικῷ ἐπιθέματι ὡς, ὅπερ ἐκ τοῦ ἀφαι- 
ρετικοῦ Gt προῆλθεν, 1. 6. καλῶς, κακῶς, σοφῶς, πάντως, πολλαχῶς, 
πῶς, TOS, ὧς, ete. 

y) from ao: τιμῶμεϊς τιμάομεν ; χρῶνται, χράονται, etc. 

5) from οα and oy: αἰδῶ, αἰδόα ; δηλῶτε, δηλόητε. 

é) from av: i.e. φὸν from αὐτιον (whence the modern Greek 
ai-yov, €gg), ὠτ-ὸς from ai-rés (whence the modern Greek αὖ- 
tiov, €Ar), πῶλος (comp. τὰ παῦρος and paulus), ὦλαξ, Doric τῷ 
atAa€,” ete. 

Now we must infer from these examples, as well as from 
the dialectic changes of 0, w, and ov, — such as in κοῦρος, οὖρος 
(Ionic), κῶρος, dpos (Doric), κόρος, ὄρος (Attic), and many 


SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 151 


others, — that the letter ὦ did not always have the sound of 
long o as in hope, but on the contrary a shorter sound like ὁ 
in constant. 

The different dialectic changes of ὦ, o, and ov, etc., such as 
κοῦρος and μοῦνος instead of κόρος and μόνος, are still common 
in modern Greek. We have, also, the forms τραγουδῶ for tpa- 
γῳδῶ, τραγουδιστὴς for τραγῳδιστής, ete, 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


"Olos, 6x08. ᾽Ωθισμός, othismés. 
᾿᾽Οζδστομος, o26stomos. ᾿Ωθέω, othéo. 

”Oap, bar. ᾽Ωδίς, othis. 

”Oapos, 6alros. ᾿Ωμηστής, omesteés. 
᾽Οβελίας, ovelias. ᾿Ωμόλινον, omélinon. 
"Oypos, Ogmos. ’Orevirns, olenites. 
Ὄδυρμα, 6thermah. ἽὭμιλλα, 6millah. 
᾿᾽Οδυρμός, othermés. ᾿Ὡμίας, omias. 

᾿Οδύρτης, othertes. * ᾿Ωλεσίκαρπος, olesikarpos. 


is pronounced like the ed or like the English 7 in 
machine, marine. 

The most ancient pronunciation of v was certainly like 
that of the German and Latin w, or like the diphthong ow. 
Afterwards it deteriorated into that of the German #, or the 
French τι, and at last it acquired the sound of ἡ. 

The old pronunciation of the letter v as the German i is 
preserved in numberless modern Greek words, and it is 
especially prevalent among the modern Athenians who pro- 
nounce rovpa instead of κυρὰ (κυρία) roiAiotpa = κυλίστρα, ete. 
In many instances, as Professor Mavrophredes states, the 
original pronunciation of the letter v as ov still prevails, i. e. 
χρουσάφι = χρυσάφιον, κρούσταλλον = Kpvotadov, KOUPKOUTL = κυρ- 
κωτόν (from κυρκάω, κυκάω), ete. 

Again, the forms δρίος, δρύον (Hes. "Epy.), μόλιβος and μο- 
λύβδαινα (IX. w, 80), τρυφάλεια (Hom.) instead of τριφάλεια, as 


4 


152 SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 


well as the words μυστίλλω and μιστύλλω, μίτυλος and μύτιλος, 
ἰλύσσω and τυλίσσω, βύβλος and βίβλος, ῥύπτω and ῥίπτω, ψιμύ- 
θιον and ψιμίθιον, πύστις and πίστις show how easily v was ex- 
changed with ., and that the pronunciation of v as anu was 
not unknown to the ancients. In Asia Minor the pronuncia- 
tion of v as anc was stillanore common, and about the sixth 

century B.C. we find in “Sappho” and “ Alczeus” the forms 
; ἴψος, ἰἱψηλός, ἴπερ, trap, etc., instead of ὕψος, ὑψηλός, ὑπέρ, ὕπαρ. 

Now, the pronunciation of v as a long (9 which was so com- 
mon in Asia Minor, began at an early period to spread into 
Greece, so that it became prevalent about the birth of Christ, 
as is evident from the coins of Augustus (15 A. D.), of Tibe- 
rius (37 A. D.), and Nero (69 A. D.), in which we find ITPO- 
KPITI A®POAYSIAS instead of Πρόκριτοι ᾿Αφροδισίας. Again, 
Ἰουλία Σεβαστοῦ ΘΗγάτηρ instead of Θυγάτηρ; IMP. NERO 
Cesar Aug. P. M.; EYTHIMIYS ( EiOvpuos), etc. Here we 
᾿ may also remark the pronunciation of o and ἡ as anu. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


Ὕλη, ile. “Yompwpos, toproros. 
Υἱός, -ὅ8. γοβοσκός, iovoskés. 
‘Yeros, 1-ctds. Ὑμνητήριος, imnetérios. 
Ὑγλακάωυ, tlakdo. ‘YAoropos, tlotémos. 


‘Yerouartis, vetomantis. 


CHAPTER IIL. 


DIGRAPHS. 


Proressor MavropurepeEs claims that originally they 
were all diphthongs, each having resulted from two differ- 
ent vorcEs, but pronounced as “one syllable,” except when- 
ever they were purposely separated, 1. 6. οἴομαι, οἴω: εὖ, ἐύ, 
ἀΐω, αἰών. The following vowels ὁ and v had the position and 
force of a consonant. On this supposition, he asserts, we 
can easily explain the cutting off of « and v from εἰάν, αἰεί, ai- 
σύφηλος, καίω, ποιέω, ᾿Αλκαῖος, ἀλήθεια, ἐπισκευάζω, ἐπεσκεύασεν, 
εὐαμερὶς, γαύνυμαι, κραιπάλη, πολύκλειτος, εἵλωτες, from which 
resulted ἐὰν, ἀεί, ἀσύφηλος, Kaw, ποέω (Att.), "AAKaos, ἀλάθεα 
(.4.0].), ἐπισκεάζω (from ἐπισκεβάζω), κατεσκέασεν (ἐκ τοῦ κατ- 
εσκέξασεν), ἐαμερὶς (ἐκ τοῦ ἐξαμερίς, Ross 1η86. ined. 746), γάνυ- 
μαι (from γάξνυμαι, verb yav, yaF, Latin gaudeo), as well as 
the Latin crapula, Polycletus, Helotes. In like manner from 
μεθυίω, ὀπυίω, we have pedo, ὀπύω. In later years the sep- 
arate vowels of the diphthongs were blended, so that they 
came to be pronounced like the Latin or German: @ (4), 
ce (δ), and id, and finally became simple “ monophthongs.” 
But this change fr from “diphthongs” to_“monophthongs” 
_preyailed even in n the times of Homer, because we have 
κοίλῃσι, πολλῇσι, ᾿θεῇῆσι, “etc. “instead of κοΐλαισι, πολλαῖσι, 
θεαῖσι, etc. Furthermore in the Beotian dialect we have 
ἱππότη; εὐεργέτης, διακατίης, χειλίης, τῆς, κατασκευάττη, κεκόμιστη,; 
ὀφείλετη, ἀπογράφεσθη, δεδόχθη, Θειβῆος, Ταυαγρῆος, etc., instead 
of ἱππόται, εὐεργέταις, διακατίαις, χειλίαις, ταῖς, κατασκευάσσαι, 
κεκόμισται; etc., in which examples we plainly see that the 














154 DIGRAPHS. 


diphthong a is no longer a-, but has fallen into an ἡ or ό, 
and in later years it naturally acquired the sound of epsilon. 
About the third century B. C. diphthongs had entirely be- 
come monophthongs, just as they are to-day with the modern. 
Greeks. We will now proceed to examine each DIPHTHONG 
separately. 


CHAPTER IV. 


SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 


A ΑΙ } 
is pronounced precisely like an epsilon, or like the English e 
in the first syllable of example. ΄ 


1) That αὐ was pronounced by the ancients like an ε is 
evident from the fact that many words which are ordinarily 
written with a in some cases for the sake of brevity, are 
written with ες e. g. aiwpos (Plato) = ἔωρος, in Tl. 0, 26: 


“ἐ Δησαίμην, τὰ δὲ κ᾽ αὖτε μετήορα πάντα γένοιτο᾽᾽ ; 


in like manner we have αἰόλλω, αἴολος, in Homer and Pindar, 
for ἐόλλω, ἐολέω. See also Homer’s “Iliad” 6, 749: 


“ἐπι δ᾽ ᾿Ενιῆνες ἕποντο μενεπτόλεμοί τε Περαιβοί,᾽" 


where Ἐνιῆνες stands for Αἰνιᾶνες. Again, we have φαινίνδα 
for devivda, φαινόλης and φενώλης, ψέκας and ψαίκας, ἀνώγαιον 
and ἀνώγεον, Τιθοραία and Τιθορέα (an old name of a city in 
Beeotia), λευκαία and λευκέα, ἀκταία and ἀκτέα, ete. 

2) In prosody a at the end of a word is short, also in 
scansion before a vowel. In such cases it could not have 
been sounded as a diphthong. 

3) The translators of the Old Testament (280 B. C.) al- 
ways render the long ε of the Hebrews (ézere) by ai, i. e. 
Βαιθὴλ = Bethel, Gen. xii.; Θαιμὰν = Theman, Gen. xxxvi. 11; 
Xathwv = Chelon, Num.i.9; Αἰνάν = Hnan, Num.i. 15; Αἰλείμ 
= Hlim, Exod. xvi. 1; ete. 

4) The poet Callimachus (250 B.C.) in one of his epi- 


156 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 


rags ° 2 é 
grams distinctly represents the echo in ν-αίχι answering by 
EXEL: 
**Avoavin, σύγε ναίχι καλὸς, καλός - ἀλλὰ πρὶν εἰπεῖν 
Τοῦτο σαφῶς, ἠχὼ φησί τις, ἄλλος exer.” 


5) Inscriptions of the second century B. C. bear κὲ πέζοντας, 
πεζόντων, κατάκιτε, instead of καὶ παίζοντας, παιζόντων, κατάκειται. 

6) Dionysius οἵ Halicarnassus (80 B.C.) translates the 
Latin Prenestini by Πρενεστῆνοι, and Strabo renders the 
same by Πραινεστῖνοι. 

7) In the Syriac.translation of the Gospels a is rendered 
by the long Syriac 6 in the words Καισάρεια, Πραιτώριον, Ὑμέ- 
vatos, etc. 

8) On some coins of Nero, 69 A. D. (Occo. p. 18), we find 
Tlov7Ea instead of Ποππαία. 

- 9) ais rendered by ὦ in the Latin, i. 6. wgilops = αἰγίλωψ, 
egithus = αἴγιθος, egophtalmus = αἰγόφθαλμος, elurus = ai- 
Aoupos, CNigma = αἴνιγμα, baleena = φαλαίνα, hyena = ὕαινα. 

10) In Greek inscriptions belonging to the Roman period 
we find ε representing a and vice versa. 

11) Plutarch indicated the true pronunciation of a by 
rendering the Latin fenestra by the Greek φαινέστρα, Henes- 
tella = BaweorédAa(s). 

12) Finally, Sextus (190 A.D.) distinctly asserts that the 
sound w and εἰ “is simple and uniform”: “ Ἐπεὶ οὖν 6 τοῦ at 
καὶ εἰ φθόγγος ἁπλοῦς ἐστὶ καὶ μονοειδής." So also in Sanscrit 
we have véda = vaida, vécas = vaigas, bharaté = bharatai = 
φέρετα. In French ai is pronounced as an @ e.g. mais, 
Francais, Anglais, ete. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


. Αἰάζω, edzo. 
Aiavns, canes. 
Αἵρεσις, ¢resis. 


Αἰακίδης, eakithis. 
Αἰδέομαι, ethéome. 
Αἰδήμων, ethemon. 


Αἰκίζω, ekizo. 
Αἴλινος, élinos. 
Αἴθω, étho. 
Αἴθουσα, ¢thoosa. 
Αἰθιοπίς, ethiopis. 


SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. TRG 


΄ 


VAY | : 

is pronounced like af or av according to the letter which 
follows it. If it is followed by 6, & o, 7, then this digraph is 
sounded like af; but before y, 8, A, v, p, and before vow els 
and other digraphs it is pronounced like av. 

1) That the pronunciation of the diphthongs av, ev, and ov, 
in use by the modern Greeks, was the original pronunciation 
of the ancient Greeks is evident from the fact that the v of 
these diphthongs in many instances resulted from F (v), or 
rather it occupies in many instances the place of F (0); e.g. 
αὔως (AXol. ἠὼς) instead of αὔσως, from the root αἷς or Fas} 
καίειν, λάμπειν, αὖος (dry) have in like manner resulted from 
the same root. A modern Greek scholar gives also κλαύσω = 
kAGFow, ναῦος (Atol.) = vaFos, ναός ; αὐτὸς = aFrés. The same 
word is also found in an inscription on the Island of Delos, 
ἀξυτὸς. παῦρος (Lat. parvus) from wdapFos = πάξροςς. In the 
“Tliad” (η, 86) we have xevwow (the aorist subj. of χεύω), 
ἔχευα, χεῦαι = χέξω, ἔχεξα, χέξαι; εὔκηλος = ἔβκηλος = Ἐέκ-ηλος 
(from the root vax, Fax, whence Professor Mavrophredes says 
we get ἑκών, dFéxwv, ἕκητι, GFEKNTL, ἧκα, ἥκιστος, etC.; εὔχομαι = 
ἔξχομαι = Βέχομαι; εὖρος = éFpos, from the root Fa (Fa), whence 
we have also αὖρα and οὖρος, as well as οὔριος. 

Again, we have βουλὴ (AZol. βόλλα) from the ancient BorAFa 
= βοελα, Sovpos, γουνὸς from δορεὸς = SoF pos; yovFds = yoF vos ; 
ovAos (= ὅλος) from oAFos = ὄξλος (Sanscr. sarva-s); νοῦσος 
(νόσος) from νόσξος = voFaos ; κοῦρος and κούρη (Lonic) = κόρος, 
κόρη from KopFos, κόρΕη = κόρος, KoFpn, ete. 

2) The Latin language renders the diphthongs av and ev 
by the monosyllables av and ev, 1. 6. cavneds = καυνείας ; 
Pavo, paved = παύω (Paw); cavo = καύω (xdw); NAVIs = ναῦς, 
vavos; lavo = λάξω (Aavw); favo = daiw; Phavorinus = Φαυω- 
pivos (Φαβωρῖνος, Plutarch); παῦρος, by transposition parvus 
(and by another transposition pravus). Oekonomos gives 
also εὐοὶ, eddy = evoe, evan, evax; Eiuos, Hvius ; Evavdpos, 


158 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 


Evander ; Xevipos, X<Bipos, Severus ; Δαῦος, Davus (Plaut., 
Virg., Ovid). 

8) The translators of the Old Testament about the third 

century B. C. render the Hebrew vav sometimes by 8, some- 

᾿ς times by v, e. g. Δαβὶδ and Δαυΐδ, Aeun = Levi. And, vice 
versa, the v of av and ev the Syriac translator of the New 
Testament (about the first century A. D.) renders by vav. 
Furthermore, many biblical names, such as Eva, Δαυΐδ, Eiay- 
γέλιον, Eiodia, etc. are rendered in Latin Hua, David, Hvan- 
gelium, Hvodia, etc. 

4) Cicero writes (Divin. 11, 40): “ Cum M. Crassus exer- 
citum Brundisti imponeret, quidam in portu caricas Cauno 
advectas vendens, CAUNEAS clamitabat. Dicamus, si placet, 
monitum ab eo Crassum, caveret, ne iret: non fuisse peri- 
turum, 81 omini paruisset.” Comp. Pliny (Hist. Nat. XV., 
19). Professor Mavrophredes says: “Δῆλον, ὅτι τὸ ὄνομα Cau- 
neas (6. g. καυνείας ἰσχάδας) ἐν τῇ Μεγάλῃ Ῥλλάδι ὁμοφθόγγως τῇ 
φράσει CAV(E)NEEAS ἠχοῦν ὡς κακὸς οἰωνὸς ἐξελήφθη." 

The followers of Erasmus to sustain their pronunciation of 
av bring forward that line of Aristophanes written to rep- 
resent the barking of dogs. Now, it_is curious to consider 
that the followers of Erasmus always call the sounds of ani- 

“mals to decide any points of Greek pronunciation. For in- 
stance, when they wish to settle the sound of 8, they bring 
the well-known lines of Cratinus written to represent the 
bleating of the sheep; when they would fix the sound of οι, 
they bring that line of Aristophanes written to represent the 
grunting of hogs; and now, between-the hogs and the sheep, 
they let loose the dogs to decide by their barking the sound 
of av. To what a degradation the followers of Erasmus have 
brought the divine language of Plato! 








EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


Before 6. 
Αὐθέντης, afthentis. Αὐθήμερος, afthémeros. Αὐθέψης, afthépsis. 


SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 159 


Before &. 

Αὐξάνω, afrdno» Αὐξίτροφος, afxitrophos. Αὐξομείωσις, afxomiosis. 
Before co. 

Αὐσταλέος, afstaléos. Avornpia, afsteria. Avotnpés, afsterds. 
Before τ. 

Αὐτάρεσκος, aftdreskos. Αὐτάρχης, aftdrhis. Αὐτερέτης, afteretis. 
Before y. 

Αὐγή, avgé. Αὔγουστος, dvgoostos. 
Before 6. 

Avdn, avthé. Αὐδάζομαι, avthdzome. Avdara, avthdta. 
Before λ. 

Αὐλός, avlés, Αὐλουρός, avlourés. — Αὐλῳδία, avlothia. 
Before p. 

Αὔριον, Gvrion. Αὐρίζω, avrizo. Αὐριβάτης, avrivdtes. 


Before Vowels. 


Αὐενιών, avenion. Αὐερύω, avereo. Αὐηλός, avilés., 


Before Diphthongs. 


Αὐαίνω, avéno. 


KEY) 
is likewise pronounced like ef or ev. Before 6, x, & =, o, τ, φ, 
x, Ψ this diphthong is sounded like ef Before y, δ, & A, p, v, 
p, and before vowels and diphthongs, it is pronounced like ev. 
Concerning the antiquity and genuineness of this pronuncia- 
tion we spoke in detail when treating of the diphthong av. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


Before 0. 
Εὐθάλαμος, efthdlamos. Ἐὐθάλασσος, efthdlassos. Ἐὐθαλπής, efthalpis. 


Before k. 
Εὐκάρδιος, ef karthios. Εὐκατάγνωστος, ef katdgnostos. 
Εὐκατάστατος, efkatdstatos. 


160 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 


Before ἔξ. 
Evéevos, efxenos. Εὔξεστος, éfxestos. Εὐξήραντος, efxtrandos. 
Before π᾿ 


Ἐὔπεπλος, éfpeplos. Εὐπένθερος, efpentheros. Εὔπεπτος, éfpeptos. 


Before o. 
Ἑὐσταθής, efstathis. Εὐσταλής, efstalis. Evoredavos, efstéphanos, 


Before +. 
Εὐστραφής, efstraphis. Εὔτρεπτος, éftreptos. Εὔτρητος, ¢ftritos. 
Before 9. 
Εὐφρόνη, effréni. Εὔφωνος, effonos. Εὐφώρατος, efforatos. 
Before x. 
Εὐχάλκωτος, efhdlkotos. Ἐὔχαρις, éf/haris. Evxapiotia, efharistia. 
Before ψ. 
Εὐψάμαθος, efpsimathos. Εὐψηφίς, efpsiphis. 
Before y. 
Εὖγε, cvge. EvyAnvos, évglenos. Εὐγαθής, evgathis. 
Before ὃ. 
Evdia, evthia. Εὐδιάβατος, evthidvatos, Εὐδιάβολος, evthidvolos. 
Before {. 
Ἐὔζηλος, évzelos, Evlapos, evzoros. Εὔζωνος, évzonos. 
Before X. 
EvAipevos, evlimenos, Εὐλόγιστος, evlégistos. Εὔλογος, évlogos. 
Before μ. 
Εὐμεγέθης, evmeycthis.  Evpeverns, evmenctis, Evpédavos, evmélanos, 
Before v. 
Eva, evnia. Ets, cvnis. Εὔνημα, evnema. 
Before p. 
Evperéos, evretéos. Εὑρεσίτεχνος, evresitechnos. Evpnpa, evrema. 


Before Vowels and Diphthongs. 
Evaédos, évathlos. Evdepos, evderos. Evade, cvathe. 
Evaipor, evémon. Εαισθησία, evesthesia. Evaiabnros, evésthetos. 


SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 161 


HY | 

has the sound of ἐγ before 0, κ᾿ ξ, π, a; T, b, xX, Ψ, and tv before 
yy δ) & Ay μην» p and before vowels and diphthongs. That qu 
and wv were originally pronounced exactly as they are to-day 
by the modern Greeks is evident from the fact that yv and 
wv are simply the Ionic forms of av and ev: γρηῦς, νηῦς, witos 
θωῦμα (Ion.) = γραῦς, ναῦς, αὐτὸς θαῦμα, etc. It is, therefore, 
evident that the pronunciation of yv and wv closely resembled 
that of av, and ev. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
Tpnis, gréfs. Νηῦς, néfs. 


OY 


is pronounced like of before θ, K δ 1, 0,7, py x, Ψ, and like ov 
before y, δ, ζ, A, μον» p, also before vowels and diphthongs. 


YI and YH 


are pronounced exactly like the modern Greek « or like the 
English ¢ in machine. Homer almost always makes the w in 
the word vids a short syllable, e.g. Il. & 130; ὃ, 473; η, 47; 
p, 975. Again, the correctness of the modern Greek pronun- 
ciation of these vowel-combinations is supported by the two 
forms of the words μεθύω and ὀπύω, which are also written 
μεθυίω, ὀπυίω. Professor Mavrophredes asserts that this can- 
not: be otherwise explained than by the assumption that the 
words μεθυίω, ὀπυΐω, vids originally were pronounced μεθύ]ω, 
ὀπύ]ω, tjos; afterwards the 7 («) was cut out, especially be- 
tween two vowels. We have many instances of this, and 
to this day the modern Greeks pronounce μύγα = μύ)α, méa. 
Finally, in old inscriptions, as well as on coins, the noun vids 
is very often written ὑὸς, from which it becomes evident that 
υιπευξ ι.- 
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


Yidods, ethoos. Υἱός, eds. “γηττός, etds. 


162 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 

ri ἃ 

ΟΥ 
is pronounced exactly like the-French ow or like the English 
oo in the word moon. 

The diphthong ov was originally a monophthong, as it. is 
to this day with the modern Greeks, and was pronounced in 
some dialects like an o or like the Latin wu. This is evident 
from the fact that in the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries 
B. C. the AXolians used to render ov simply by an 0. Again, 
we have many instances in which ov is rendered in different 
dialects by an v, 6. g. κουρίδιος (Homeric) = κυρίδιος = κύριος 5 
κουρωθείει = κυρωθῇ ; οὔδωρ = ὕδωρ ; ἀσουλία = ἀσυλία. 

Again, the Latin and Semitic 10 is invariably rendered in 
Greek by ov, e.g. Ἰούδας, Iovdatos, ete.; “lovvios, Βροῦτος, Σέξ- 
τος, Ἰούλιος. Finally, the fact that ov is never written sep- 
arated into two sounds (ov), as we occasionally find ai, εὖ, <i, 
oi, etc., is a proof, Professor Mavrophredes believes, that ov 
was a monophthong even in the pre-historic period of the 


Greek language. 
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


Οὐσία, oosia, Οὐδέποτε, oothépote. 
Ovrepos, odteros. Οὐδετέρως, oothetéros. 


Οὔτησις, odtesis. 


is pronounced like @ in ebonbmy, or like an English 6. 
Oekonomos thinks that it was sounded in some dialects as 
ov = u Italian or like the Latin @, and in some as the French 
u passing into ¢ This is highly probable from the fact that 
the A£olians used οἱ instead of a, 6. @. ὄνοιρος, ὄνειρος. 

1) The Latin language renders o by @, e.g. (Εἴα = Οἴτα, 
Croesus = Κροῖσος, Gnops = Otvoy, Aidipus = Οἰδίπους, (Eneus 
= Οἰνεύς. Professor Mavrophredes says that the diphthong 
ce was at an early period pronounced among the ancient Ro- 
mans just as the German 6, and consequently @ became, or 


SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 163 


passed into an @=7 (6). This is highly probable from the 
fact that Quintilian says: “CE scribendum esse non profe- 
rendum, omnes edocent.” 

2) The Alexandrian, the Copt, and the Latin translators 
of the Bible from the third century B. C. to the third cen- 
tury A. D. always render the Hebrew 6 by means of the 
Greek οι, and, vice versd, they render οὐ by means of 6 (@). 
Now, that οἱ had also the sound of v, which is still prevalent 
among the modern Greeks is highly probable from the state- 
ment of Thucyd., B. 54: “Ἔν τῷδε τῷ καιρῷ οἷα εἰκός, ἀνεμνή- 
σθησαν καὶ τοῦδε τοῦ ἔπους φάσκοντες οἱ πρεσβύτεροι ᾷδεσθαι. 


cv 


Ηξει δωριακὸς πόλεμος καὶ λοιμὸς ἅμ᾽ αὐτῷ; 

ἐγένετο μὲν οὖν ἔρις τοῖς ἀνθρώποις μὴ λοιμὸν ὠνομάσθαι ἐν τῷ ἔπει 
ὑπὸ τῶν παλαιῶν, ἀλλὰ λιμόν - ἐνίκησε δὲ ἐπὶ τοῦ παρόντος λοιμὸν 
εἰρῆσθαι. So that it. becomes evident that there existed be- 
tween λοιμὸς and λιμὸς ἃ SAMENESS of sound, and not an 
“jdentity of meaning.” Now, of all sounds the one which 
has a closer resemblance to ., or rather an identity of sound 
with it, is v, judging also from the fact that Demosthenes 
(fourth century B.C.) writes ᾿Ανεμύτας instead of ᾿Ανεμοίτας, 
and from many other examples which we noticed when treat- 
ing of the letter v we must infer that the letter v in several 
dialects was written instead of οἱ, and hence it is evident 
that it was equal to οἱ or. (οι =v= +). Again, that o at an 
early period had exactly the sound of a simple c is evident 
from the fact that about the first century B.C. we find writ- 
ten on a coin of Julius Cesar, IOQNISTHS for OIONISTHS. 
Again, on another coin of Augustus we find ITPOKPITI for 
ITPOKPITOI. 

Δίων ὃ Κάσσιος relates that Nero (60 A.D.) killed two 
Σουλπικίους “ὅτι ποιητικοὶ ἐκ προγόνων ἐπικαλούμενοι οὐκ ἐπαύ- 
σαντο πρόσρημα τοῦτ᾽ ἔχοντες, GAN εἰς τὰς τοῦ Νέρωνος νίκας τὰς 
πυθικὰς ἐκ τῆς ὁμωνυμίας ἠσέβουν." Now, we plainly see o = v, 
ἢ =13 also that ow = w= v= 1, because confessedly v in that 
period was pronounced as . About the second century A. Ὁ). 


164 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 


on some coins of “’Avtwvrivov τοῦ Πίου the word εἰκοστοῦ is 
four times written οἱ, and the noun ᾿Αντωνῖνος four times is 
found written by εἰ (ANTQNEINOS), hence it results that — 
δὲ ΞΞ᾿ ξὶ Ξξ ὦ ete. 

Now, that ἐ subscriptum of the a, ἢ» ῳ was always silent is 
evident from the statement of Strabo (about the birth of 
Christ): “ Πολλοὶ χωρὶς τοῦ t γράφουσι τὰς δοτικὰς καὶ ἐκβάλ- 
λουσί γε τὸ ἔθος φυσικὴν αἰτίαν οὐκ ἔχον," in which the “ φυσικὴν 
αἰτίαν οὐκ ἔχον" simply means that it was unpronounced. 
Again, that the . subscriptum, long before Strabo, was silent 
we may conclude from the way the ancient Romans rendered 
the words tragedus, comeedus, citharcedus, ode, rapsodus, 
prosodia, palinodia, herous, patrous, in which the simple 
sound of o is equivalent to the Greek ῳ. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


Οἴκαδε, &kathe. Oixevorpayia, ekeopragia. Oikos, &kos. 


(Er \ 

is pronounced like the English’¢ in the words machine, 
marine. ‘That there was a time in which εἰ was pronounced 
as «1, appears from the statement of Plato, Cratyl. 402, ε: 
“Tov οὖν ἄρχοντα τῆς δόμοι ed θεὸν ὠνόμασε ἐπ ἐκείν ὡς 
ποσί-δε-σμον ὄντα, τὸ δὲ ε ἔγκειται ἴσως εὐπρεπείας ἕνεκα.ἢ 

However, the εἰ at a very early period passed into the pro- 
nunciation of a simple ει, judging from the fact that εἰ was 
rendered by ὦ in the Latin language, 6. g. Wilus = Νεῖλος, 
crocodilus = κροκόδειλος, Hpaminondas = ᾿Ἐπαμεινώνδας, Chi- 
rotonia = Xeiporovia, spira = σπεῖρα, tronia = εἰρωνεία, elegia = 
ἐλεγεία, litania = λιτανεία. In a Latin author we find: “Z 
quoque apud antiquos post E pronebatur, et El diphthongum 
faciebat, quam pro omni 1 longa scribebant, more antiquo 
Grecorum.” Again, that εἰ had the same sound as 1, even 
among the ancient Romans, is rendered highly probable from 
the fact that in the very best period of the Latin language 


SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. — 165 


ἡ was substituted for e¢. Thus we have tidus, primus, ete., 
the older forms being eidus, preimus, ete. The ancient 
Greeks, on the other hand, often rendered the ὁ of the Latins 
by εἰ, e.g. Plutarch translates the words tidus, idibus by 
cidovs, εἰδοῖς (older form e¢dus). The very ancient identity of 
the sound of εἰ as a simple ¢ is established from the fact that 
we find in Homer εἰδὼς, εἰδυῖα (Il. ρ, ὃ; 4, 1285; ψ, 263; Od. a, 
428, ete.), as well as ἰδυῖα (Il. σ, 880, 482; v, 12; Od. η, 92, 
etc.), «short. We have idutos, idvor, as well as εἴδυο. Again, 
we find the forms εἴκελος and ἴκελος, γείνομαι (II. κ) and yivo- 
pat, λείχω and λίχω, ἐρείκη and ἐρίκη, στεῖβος and oriBos, detw 
and δίω, πείθω and πίθω, φθεὶρ and φθὶρ, and so on. 

Plamoudes relates that Ausop (572 B.C.) pronounced ce 
just as ov (v=). 

Aristophanes (450 B. C.) has a pun in διαπεινᾶμες (Boeotian, 
instead of διαπεινῶμεν) and διαπίνομεν. In Diogenes Laertius 
we find another pun on ἀλλ᾽ ἱμάτιον and ἀλειμμάτιον : “᾿Ιδὼν 
μειρακύλλιον ἱματιοκλέπτην ἐν τῷ βαλανείῳ ἔφη, “ἐπ᾽ ἀλειμμάτιον ἤ 
ἔπ᾽ ἄλλο ἱμάτιον ;᾽ ἢ Ρ 

The translators of the Old Testament rendered the Hebrew 
elim by the Greek αἰλείμ, and in several other old Greek pas- 
sages -we find πρωτοτόκια and TPWTOTOKELA, παραγείνεται. and 
παραγίνεται, Θαρσεῖς and Θαρσὶς, νεῖκος and νῖκος. Dionysius 
of Halicarnassus clearly regards not only εἰ but also αὐ and 
av and o “as undivided syllables,” or, in other words, con- 
siders them as simple monophthongs. Strabo renders by εἰ 
the Latin 7, 6. g. Ligeris, Λείρης (Loire), Liris, Λεῖρις. The 
Syriac translator of the Gospels renders εἰ by 4, e. g. iki= εἰκῆ. 
In the New Testament we find ἐπεὶ and ἐπὶ, νήστεις and νήστις, 
veikos and νῖκος, ete. 

The writer Athenzus says of the Attic courtesan Thais 
(third century B.C.): Θαὺς πρὸς γράσωνα πορευομένη ἐραστήν, 
ἐπεί τις αὐτὴν ἠρώτα ποῖ πορεύεται, εἶπεν, 


“Αἰγεῖ συνοικήσουσα τῷ Πανδίονος. ᾿" 


Thais, whilst saying Αἰγεῖ meant αἰγί (= γράσωνι); the pun is 


it ᾿ SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 


in the similarity of sound between εἰ and ι, as Eustathius 
says (Bas., Ὁ. 867). Plutarch translates the Latin 7 by εἰ; 6. g. 
Lusitania, Λυσιτάνεια; Honori,’Ovepe; Pinarii, Πεινάριοι. 
On a papyrus (παρὰ Latronne) — Fragments inédis d’an- 
ciens poetes Grecs, tirés dun papyrus appartenant au 
musée royal, Paris, 1841 — we find at times “ézi¢” and at 
others the same word written “ érei¢,” thus demonstrating 
the similarity of sound between εἰ and ι. Cicero (Epist. ad 
Familiares, [X. 22) says: “Cum loquimur TERNI nihil flagi- 
tii dicimus; ad cum BIN1 obscenum est, grecis quidem 
inquies. Nihil est ergo in verbo; quando et ego grace 
scio, et tamen tibi dico, RINI, idque tu facis, quasi ego grace 
non latine dixerim.” Hence it is evident that Bive had the 
same sound as bini. Nigidius says: “Gracos non tante in- 
scitic arcesso qui OY ex O et Y scripserunt, quantee qui EI 
ex E et 1; tllud enim inopia facerunt, hoc nulla re coacti.” 
Finally, on coins and inscriptions words have been found 
written with εἰ, which are also written with 1, 1. 6. TPIMTOAEI-— 
ΤΩΝ, ETEIMHSEN, NEIKH, ΑΤΡΙΠΠΕΊΝΑΣ, TEIMHTHS, 
SABEINOS, AOTTEINA, NEIKOSTPATOS, XEAEIAONTS, 
NEIKOIIOAEITON, etc. Notice also the Beotian forms 
ἀνεγείρι, λαλῖς, etc., instead of ἀνεγείρει, λαλεῖς, etc. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


Eiapevn, eament. Εἰρωνεία, eronia. Eipxrn, erkté, 


p LIBRAR ry 
| UNIVERSITY oF] 
νι CALIFORNIA » 


| 
j 


CHAPTER V. 


THE CONSONANTS. 


B . 


is pronounced like v in vase. The followers of Erasmus 
maintain that the letter 8 was originally pronounced like the 
Latin 6. They claim that the ancient Romans rendered the 
B of the Greek words not by v, but by 4. - Again, they quote 
that verse of the Comedian Cratinus, — 


“Ὁ δ᾽ ἠλίθιος, ὥσπερ πρόβατον, βῆ βῆ λέγων βαδίζει," — 


in which (they say) it is evident that Cratinus and his fellow- 
citizens, the Athenians, pronounced the β as a ὦ, and ἡ as an @, ~ 
because the sheep in bleating say not By (according to the 
pronunciation now prevalent in Greece), but bee, ὅδ. They 
claim also that Cicero wrote in one of his letters that the 
Greek Bive has the same sound as the Latin dint. These 
seem to me to be the only reasons which the followers of 
Erasmus bring to sustain their pronunciation of the letter β. ἢ 
Now, the ancient Romans represented the 8 of many Greek 
words like their own v. Ocekonomos brings the following 
examples: βέλω, Borw, volo; Biv, Bid, Biro, vivo; Burd, 
vita ; βόρω, Bopos, voro; βόραξ, vorax,; βαίνω, venio (per- 
haps this is derived from Béw, whence we have βείομαι = 
Baw, Baivw, Bévw); Badw, vado; Bia (Bis, Fis, is), vis; vip 
νιβὸς, nix nivis ; etc. The ancient Greeks used also to ren- 
der the v of the Latins by f, for instance: Valentianus, Ba- 
Aevriaves; Severus, Σεβῆρος; Octavius, ᾿Οκτάβιος; Veturius, 
Berovpios; Aventini, ᾿Αβεντῖνοι (Plutarch). In a few instances 


168 THE CONSONANTS. 


the v was rendered in Greek by ov; for instance, Varro = 
Βάῤῥων or Οὐάῤῥων (this latter peculiarity is for the sake of 
euphony, Οὐάῤῥων being more euphonic than Βάῤῥων). 

From what has been said it appears probable that in the 

old Latin tongue (which may be termed either the daughter 
or the sister of the AXolic dialect), so long as the pronuncia- 
tion of the emigrant A‘olians remained unaltered, so long the 
letter 6 was pronounced exactly as the modern Greeks pro- 
nouncé their 8. But afterwards, the Latin language being 
«adopted by the other tribes of Italy, — tribes which were 
barbarous and hence unacquainted with Grecian phraseology, 
— the pronunciation became rather harsh and rough, as their 
manner of speaking, and hence among them the Greek β 
gradually degenerated into the sound of 6. To this reason, 
as a modern Greek states, must be attributed the fact of the 
use of 6 instead of v, as is often seen in ancient inscriptions, 
1. 6. bixit instead of vixit, serbus instead of servus, amabile 
and benemeritus instead of amavile and venemeritus. In 
one of the laws of Numa which has been preserved by. Fes- 
tus we read Jobis instead of Jovis. Traces of the pronun- 
ciation of β are to be found in the Spanish language, i. 6. 
vene, vestia, for bene, bestia ; and in French, especially among 
the so-called Gascons, But Jacob Creatin, one of the most 
devoted followers of Erasmus, in his “De Sono Literarum 
Grecorum” admits that the ancient pronunciation of B was 
not so “ ἔντονος καὶ βομβηρὰ" as the present. — 

Liddell and Scott likewise admit that the pronunciation 
was softer than our ὦ, like the Spanish or modern Greek for 
instance, As for Cicero’s statement, no one can assure us 
that the letter ὦ had in his time exactly the pronunciation 
now prevalent among the followers of Erasmus. Again, it is 
probable that Cicero wished simply to show the similarity 
which exists between these two words, as respects the length 
of the syllables (in pronouncing). And, as a scholar affirms, 
these two words were not pronounced by Cicero in a speech, 


THE CONSONANTS. (169 


but simply written in a letter, whence it may result that 
Cicero wished simply to show the analogy in writing which 
exists between these two words, rather than their sound or 
pronunciation. As for the 
“Ὁ δ᾽ ἠλίθιος ὥσπερ πρόβατον, βῆ βῆ λέγων Badife,” 
it is evident that Cratinus used it because he had πο other 
letter by which he could express the sound made by a sheep. 
For the same reason Aristophanes, when he would represent 
the noise made by pigs, wrote κόϊ, xoi (instead of σόϊ, got), 
because the Greek language has no letter so_harsh in sound 
as g. And when Aristophanes would represent the croaking 
ofthe frogs, he wrote Bpexexe€. Do the frogs ever say vrekke- 
keks? Or, when he would represent the cackling of hens, he 
wrote τιτικομπροὺ. Do the hens make such a sound? There- 
fore it seems to me that it is absurd to attempt to determine 
the sound of 8 by a word used to represent the bleating of 
sheep. For we must confess that the attempts to render the 
noises of animals by the articulate sounds of “ μερόπων ἀνθρώ- 
” are very unsatisfactory. 

Now, if we consider that the name of F (vau) was written 
in Greek Bad, that the Hebrew baw was rendered in the noun 
Δαβὶδ by B, that Strabo (p. 213, 6) renders the Latin Vovum 
Comum, Νοβουμκόμουμ, and that about the year 69 Α. Ὁ. ἃ 
coin of Nero bears the inscription OKTABIA SEBASTH, — 
the genuineness of the pronunciation of 8 as veta is proved 
beyond question. | 

. Finally, as a modern Greek says, the nature of the most 
sweetly sounding of all languages by no means admits the 
harsh sound of 8. Just pronounce according to the Erasmian 
method the words βοῦν, βδάλλει, βδέλλα, βούβρωστιν, βεβρωκότα, 
βαβράζει, βάβαξ, βλὰξ, βεβοστρυχωμένος, βορβορόληπτος, βέμβιξ, 
βέβαφα, and you will acknowledge that the’Grecian Minerva 
would never have accustomed her lips to such awkward atti- 
tudes when she would not learn to play on the flute because 
it compelled her to inflate her cheeks so ungracefully. The 


170 THE CONSONANTS. 


_reason why so many students are unable to discover the mel- 
ody so characteristic of the Greek pronunciation is to be 
attributed simply to the Erasmian system of pronunciation. 
What melody can there be in pronouncing “ bebrabewmenos” 
or the word βεβοστρυχωμένος (bebostruchoménos) ὃ 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


Βεκκεσέληνος, vekesélenos. Βλάβη, vldvi. 
Βιβλιογράφος, vevleographos. Βλαστύός, vlastés. 
BiBAwvos, vevlenos. Βλασφημία, vlasphemia. 
Βλαστάνω, vlastdno. Βλάσφημος, vldsphemos. 
Βλάζω, vldzo. Βλάψις, vldpsis. 
Βλάπτω, υἱάρίο. Bios, vios. 
Βλάβοΐξ, vldvos. Βάλσαμον, valsamon. 

Ἐ' 


before a, 0, ὠ, av, ov has nearly the same sound of ghah, but 
softer and more guttural than the ga of the Western nations. 
Before «, v, 1, v, εὖ, ot, y is pronounced like y, and when fol- 
lowed by another y, or by «, ἕ, or x, it takes the sound of rv. 

That the letter y was a guttural soft semivowel is evident 
from the fact that Homer has y as an aspirate before some 
words, as aia for γαῖα; also in other Greek words, as ἵννος 
(énnos) for yivvos (yénos). In modern Greek we get λέω (160) 
for λέγω (légho), πρᾶμα (prahma) for πρᾶγμα (pragmah). 
Professor Gandel remarks that many words in the Septua- 
gint, especially such words as Taga and Τόμοῤῥα, prove almost 
to a demonstration that the present pronunciation of y by the 
modern Greeks must have prevailed in the time of the trans- 
lators of the Septuagint\/ 

We said that y, when followed by another y, x, ἕ, or x takes 
the sound οὖν. This is evident from the way in which the 
Romans used to write such Greek words, i. 6. ἄγγελος, angelus. 
Again, in very old inscriptions we find that the Greeks were 
wont to write y before x, whilst the Romans express the 
sound of the letter y by ν, i.e. in a very old coin the city 
ZATKAH is written in Latin ZANALE. 


THE CONSONANTS. 171 


Again, in very old MS. we see that the Greeks were wont 
to write y instead of v before y, x, € and x not only in syn- 
thesis, but also “ἐν παραθέσει," 1. 6. Kaddy κ᾽ ἀγαθὸν, instead 
of καλὸν κ᾿ ἀγαθόν; ἐγ χορὸν, instead of ἐν χορόν ; ἐγ καρὸς, in- 
stead of ἐν καρὸς (ἐν καρὸς αἴση, Homer), whence resulted the 
synthetic noun éyxap, ἔγκαρος (just as the old grammarians 
were wont to read this Homeric passage). Now, many of 
the followers of Erasmus blame the Greek grammarians 
because they said that the letter v before y, «x, and € is 
changed in the synthetic words into y. “ What is the use,” 
they say, “of changing v into a y and then pronouncing it 
like v? Must not the v always remainav?” We say, No! 
“ διὰ τὴν (according to Aristotle) ἀηδῆ τῶν φθόγγων προσβολήν." 

Finally, the forms γερακαραίας and γεράκων = ἱερακαρέας and 
ἱεράκων, and others we might enumerate show that the letter 
y ought never to be sounded like the hard g of the English. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


Ταλακτοποσία, ghalaktoposiah. Tnyevns, yeyenis. 

Γαλατία, ghalatéah. Τηθαλέος, yethaléos. 
Ταλάκτωσις, ghalaktosis. Γεῦμα, yévmah. 

Tovos, ghénos. Tevous, yéfsis. 

Τονοκτονέω, ghonoktonéoh. Γευστικός, yefstikés. ; 
Γόμφος, gomphos. Teicov, yéson. 

Twvia, ghonéah. « Γειτονία, yetoniah. 

Τωλεός, gholeés. Tot, yéé. 

Τωνιασμός, ghoniasmés. ”Ayyapos, Ghngharos. 
Tatpos, gdvros. ᾿Αγγεῖον, ahnghéon. 

Tavpa€, ghavrax. ᾿Αγγελία, ahnghelia. 

Ταυλός, ghavlés. ᾿Αγκύλος, ahnghélos. 

Tovvos, ghounds. ἤλγκυρα, Ghngherah. 
Tovvara, ghotinatah. ᾿Αγκυλόκωλος, ahnghelokolos. 
Tovvoraxns, ghounopahes. "Ayes, ahnxis. 

Γένος, yénos. ᾿Αγχίτοκος, alnchitokos. 
Tevriavn, yentiané. ᾿Αγχόη;, ahnchée. 

Tévynpa, yénemah. ᾿Αγχόνη, ahnchone. 


Γήδιον, yethion. ᾿Αγχότατος, ahnchotatos. 


172 THE CONSONANTS. 


A 


is pronounced like ἐδ in this, that. The use of a, 88, δ, in- 
stead of ζ, ἃ5 in κωμμάδδειν, λάδδοιτο, povaidde (= μυθίζει), πλα-. 
γιάδδοντες, φαιρίδδειν (σφαιρίζειν), μᾶδδαν, χρήδδεται, οἴο.; Σδεύς 
(Ζεύς), σδυγός, σδεύγλα, ὄσδος, κωμάσδω, φροντίσδω, ὀνομάσδω, 
εἰκάσδω, etc.; δυζόν, δυμόν, Δεύς, etc.,— which forms were in 
use among many tribes of ancient Greece, such as the Spar- 
tans, the Megarians, the Beotians, as well as the A£olians 
and Dorians, — proves most conclusively that the pronuncia- 
tion of 6 used by the modern Greeks was prevalent among the 
tribes we have enumerated, long before the time of Alexander. 
As ζ had a “hissing sound” (συριστικός), its dialectic substi- 
tute ὃ should have a similar sound (ὁμοιόφθογγος) ; but if ὃ 
were pronounced as a d, it could never be interchanged with ζ. 
But we cannot agree with Oekonomos that the pronunciation 
of 6, as pronounced by the modern Greeks, was prevalent 
“throughout Greece,” in the very acme of the Hellenic lan- 
guage. On the contrary, we have reason to believe that this 
soft (douce), so to speak, pronunciation of 6 was simply dia- 
lectic and not general. There are many words in modern 
Greek, in which ὃ sounds exactly as ad, from which it seems 
to us that originally the pronunciation of 6 as a αἱ was not 
uncommon among the ancient Greeks. For instance: 


Δένδρον, pronounced thendron. 
”AvOpas, ἢ ἀπᾶγαϑ.. 
”Avdpos, “ dndros. 
᾿Ανδριώτης, ον andrv6tes. 
᾿Ανδρειωμένος, ὡ andrioménos. 


Now, whenever the letter δ is preceded by a v, the modern 
Greeks pronounce it as ἃ d; in every other case it has its soft 
sound.) The different changes of the letter 6 into various 
consonants are still prevalent in modern Greek. In ancient 
Greek we get the forms σάνδαλον changed into odpPadovy 
ὀδελός for ὀβελός, Δεὺς for Ζεύς, ἀρίζηλος for ἀρίδηλος, δέλω for 


THE CONSONANTS. 173 


θέλω, ἥδω for γήθω, etc. In modern Greek we get ζορκάδιον for. 
δορκάδιον, γιερὸς for διερός, ete. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


In giving these examples we thought that it might be of 
interest to the scholar to give a few words peculiar to the 
conversational style of the Greeks. Now, it must not be sup- 
posed that these words or forms are in common use in the 
language of literature and of educated men. The cultivated 
language for the most part, as Geldart affirms, preserves the 
grammatical forms of the age of Thucydides, avoiding most 
of the innovations of the later Attic dialect, as, for instance, 
θάλαττα for θάλασσα, or Χεῤῥόνησος for Χερσόνησος. The scholar 
familiar with classical Greek, by using the modern Greek pro- 
nunciation and observing the following peculiarities chiefly 
noticed in the language of the common people, will find him- 
self able to converse easily with those to whom the Greek is 
vernacular. 

a) Strictly speaking there are but four cases in the lan- 
guage of the peopLe. The Nominative, Genitive, Accusative, 
and Vocative. 

βΎ δόξα and words like it make in the Genitive τῆς δόξας, 
and are declined as follows: 


S. N. V. δόξα Μοῦσα P.N. A.V. δόξαι() Μοῦσαι(ς) 
G. δόξας Μούσας G. δοξῶν Μουσῶν 
A. δόξα(ν) Μοῦσα(ν) 


Honor. Opinion. 
S. N. V. τιμή Γνώμη 
G. τιμῆς Τνώμης 
A. τΤιμή() Γνώμη 
P. Ν. A. V. τιμαί(ς) Γνῶμαι(ς) 
G. Τιμῶν Γνωμῶν 


y) A host of nouns belonging to different declensions are 
made to follow but one: thus, Ταμίας, ἽΔλυς, Μάρτις or Μάρτης, 


174 THE CONSONANTS. 


ete. are in the Singular number all declined alike; namely, 
by cutting off the sign of the Nomi. ative -s, in the Genitive 
and Vocative, and changing it to v in the Accusative. This 
v is dropped in pronunciation when the phonetic laws of the 
language admit it (Geldart). 

δ) All adjectives in os have three ‘dene: os, ἡ, ov. When 
os is preceded by a vowel, the Feminine ends in a. The ac- 
cent of adjectives in os always retains its original place: 


S. N. σοφός σοφή σοφόᾳν) 
G. σοφοῦ σοφῆς σοφοῦ 
A. σοφόᾳφ) σοφή) σοφόᾳ(ν) 
V. σοφέ 
P. N. A. σοφοί σοφαί(ς) σοφά 
G. σοφῶν σοφῶν σοφῶν 
A. σοφούς σοφᾶς _ σοφά 
S. N. μόνος μόνη μόνο(ν) 
G. μόνου μόνης μόνου 
A. μόνοί(ν) μόνη(ν) μόνο(ν) 
Ρ, Ν. Υ. μόνοι μόναι(ς) μόνα 
G. μόνων μόνων μόνων 
A. μόνους μόνας μόνα 


é) The Plural of many words, especially of those of foreign 
origin, is formed by adding -des to the stem, as πασάδες from 
πασᾶς, μαϊμοῦδες from ἡ μαϊμοῦ (monkey). These Plurals are 
always paroxytone, whatever the accent of the word in the 
Singular (Geldart). . 

¢) The comparative is sometimes formed by means of 
πλέον, MOTE, AS πλέον μεγάλος = greater, πλέον πλούσιος = 
richer. 

7 ). Metaplastic nouns or secondary formations are common, 
as ἡ αἶγα (the goat), ὃ πατέρας (father), ὃ βασιλέας (king) : 


S. N. πατέρας βασιλέας 
G. πατέρα βασιλέα 
A. πατέρα(ν) βασιλέα(ν) 


V. πατέρα βασιλέα 


THE CONSONANTS. 


P. N. A. V. πατέρες 


G. πατέρων 


175 


βασιλέες 
βασιλέων 


The classical forms, however, ὃ πατήρ, πατέρος, and ὁ βασιλεύς, 
βασιλέως, etc., are still more prevalent. 

6) Of the pronouns ἐμὲ often appears as ἐμένα, σὲ as ἐσὲ and 
ἐσένα ; ἡμεῖς Often becomes ἑμεῖς, and in the Accusative both 


ἑμᾶς and pas. 


The latter, used as an enclitic, supplies the 


place both of ἡμᾶς and ἡμῶν. ὝὙμεϊς becomes σεῖς and ἐσεῖς, 


Accusative and enclitic possessive σᾶς, σας. 


The article, as 


enclitic and proclitic, is used for the personal pronoun in 


oblique cases (Geldart). 


Personal Pronouns. 


S. N. ἐγώ, γώ ἐσύ. 
G. ἐμένα, ᾿ μένα, μοῦ. ἐσένα, σένα, σοῦ. 
Α. ἐμένα, μένα, μξ. ἐσένα, σένα, σέ. 
P.N. ἡμεῖς, ἑμεῖς, μεῖς ἐσεῖς, σεῖς 
G. ἡμᾶς, ἑμᾶς, μᾶς. ἐσᾶς, σᾶς 
A. ἡμᾶς, ἑμᾶς, μᾶς. ἐσᾶς, σᾶς 
The verb εἰμί is thus conjugated : 
S. εἶμαι, εἶσαι, εἶνε. 
P. εἴμεθα, εἶσθε, εἶνε. 
Imperfect Indicative. 
S. ἤμην, ἦσο, ἦτο(). 
P. ἤμεθα, ἢὖὄστε, ἦσαν. 
Future Indicative. 
S. θὰ ἦμαι, θὰ ἦσαι, θὰ ἦνε. 
P. θὰ ἤμεθα, θὰ ἦσθε, θὰ ἦνε. 
Also, 


S. θέλω εἶσθαι, 


P. θέλομεν εἶσθαι, 


θέλεις εἶσθαι, 
θέλετε εἶσθαι, 


Subjunctive. 


S. ἦμαι, 
P. ἤμεθα, 


ἦσαι, 
ἦθσε, 


θέλει εἶσθαι. 


θέλουν εἶσθαι. 


176 THE CONSONANTS. 


Future Subjunctive. 


S. ἤθελα εἶσθαι, ἤθελες εἶσθαι, ἤθελεν εἶσθαι. 
Ῥ, ἠθέλαμεν εἶσθαι, ἠθέλετε εἶσθαι, ἤθελαν εἶσθαι. 
Also, 
S. θὰ ἤμουν, θὰ ἤσουν, θὰ ἦτον. 
P. θὰ ἤμεθα, θὰ ἦσθε, θὰ ἦσαν. 
Imperative. 
S. ἔσο, ἄς hve. 
F. ἄς hve. 
Infinitive. 


Present εἶσθαι or εἷσται, only after the auxiliary θέλω. 


Participle. 
Present ὄντας, indeclinable. 


γράφουσι becomes γράφουν; for ἔγραφον we have ἔγραφα; for 
ἔγραψας, ἔγραψες ; for ἐγράψατε, ἐγράψετε. In the passive in- 
stead of γράφῃ or γράφει we find ypddecar; for γραφόμεθα, ypa- 
φόμεστε. In like manner for λεγόμεθα we find λεγόμεστε, λεγό- 
μασταν, and various other forms down to the tragic λεγόμεσθα. 

For ἐγράφθην we get ἐγράφθηκα;: for ἐγράφθημεν, ἐγραφθήκα- 
μεν; for ἐγράφθησαν, ἐγράφθηκαν. 

In the present tense of contracted verbs in do, ὦ, the third 
person is often uncontracted, as ἀγαπάει for ἀγαπᾶ. Τιμῶσι 
appears sometimes as τιμοῦν or τιμοῦνε. Τιμοῦμεν appears 
sometimes for τιμῶμεν. 

Such are the main features of modern Greek accidence. 
Professor Geldart states that even with these peculiarities 
the modern Greek may be called the logical result of ancient 
Greek. “For turning to the pronouns we observe that ἐμένα 
and ἐσένα, for ἐμὲ and σὲ, preserve the original ν (in Sanscrit 
m, mam and tvdm) of the Accusative. ‘Epes is referred to by 
Plato (Crat. 418,c) as an older form for ἡμεῖς. As to the 
enclitic and proclitic use of the article it is (except for the 


THE CONSONANTS. 17% 


accent. in the latter case) the same as the Homeric usage, 
e.g. τὸν ἐσκότωσε, he killed him; ἀπεσύλησέ τους, he spoiled 
them. Passing to the verbs we find in λέγουν (λέγουσι) or 
λέγουνε the traces of the old form λέγοντι (ἔχονι, Professor Gel- 
dart thinks, is quoted by Hesychius as a Cretan form). In 
the passive voice the forms λέγεσαι, 2d person present, λεγό- 
puore OY λεγόμεθα, as well as λεγόμεθεν, are so plainly Archaic 
forms that they need no explanation. In St. Paul’s Epistle 
to the Romans we have καυχᾶσαι, thou boastest. In the im- - 
perative aorist active λέξε for λέξον. is Homeric. As to the 
imperative aorist passive A¢fov, I cannot but agree with Dr. 
Mullach “that it is the classical middle 1st aorist imperative 
of a verb in μὲ used as a passive, there being no middle voice 
in modern Greek. Few who compare such forms as στάσο 
with the corresponding modern στάσου, δέξου, etc. will be able 
to doubt this.” We now proceed with our examples of pro- 
nunciation : 


Δείχνω (com. for δεικνύω), théchno. 
Δαμάσκηνον, prune, thamdaskenon. 
Δενδράκι, a small tree, thendrake. 
Aépve, to strike, thérno. 
Δέσποινα, mistress, théspena. 
Δημοδιδάσκαλος, a teacher of a common school, themothithaskalos. 
Διάβολος, devil, thedvolos. 
Διαβόητος, famous, theavoetos. 
Ataywyn, conduct, theagoyé. 
Classical. 
Δεξίμηλος, theximelos. Διασηκόω, theasckoo. 
Atarrovrios, theapéndios. Διάνοια, thednea. 
Διαπλήσσω, theapléso. Διάμετρος, theémetros. 
Διαπίμπλημι, theapimpleme. Διέρχομαι, theérchome. 
Διαῤῥυδᾶν, thearrethdn. Δίκαιος, thékeos. 
Διασημαίνω, theaseméno. Δικαιόπολις, thekedpolis. 
2 


is pronounced like z or like the French 5 in the word rose. 
Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Sextus Empiricus say that ¢ 


178 THE CONSONANTS. 


results from σδ, not dc. Thus the forms ᾿Αθήναζε, Θήβαζε, θύ- 
pale, χαμᾶζε, βύζην, evidently resulted from ᾿Αθήνασδε, Θήβασδε, 
θύρασδε χαμάσδε, Biodnv. The followers of Erasmus maintain 
that ¢ results from dc. It is quite probable that they were | 
misled by the supposed resemblance to the Latin z. It is 
worth while, however, to consider that Quintilian remarks: 
“'The Latin language has no letter by which to translate the 
Greek £ because the ζ of the Greeks sounds melodious and 
sweet, but that of the Romans, rough and unmusical; and 
the sweet-sounding words Ζώπυρον and Ζέφυρος, translated in 
Latin copipure and Zephyrus, emit but a harsh and bar- 
barous sound, 

However, the truth is that not only the Faerie but 
Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Sextus Empiricus are alike 
mistaken in their views of ζ. The letter ζ is not a double 
consonant, as is evident from the following Homeric pas- 
sages: II. B, 824, of δὲ Ζέλειαν ; 634, of re Ζάκυνθον ; ὃ, 103, 121, 
ἄστυ Ζελείης : Od. I. 24, ὑλήεσσα Ζάκυνθος : ete., in which ¢ has 
the force of a single letter and, consequently, does not render 
the syllable long by position. Nor does it seem etymolog- 
ically to have resulted from dc, because if this was true we 
ought to have from the forms ἐλπίδσι, ποδσί, ἤλπιδσα, ἐκόμιδσα, 
etc., ἐλπίζι, ποζί, ἤλπιζα, ἐκόμιζα, and not, as we have, ἐλπίσι, 
ποσί, ἤλπισα, ἐκόμισα. Finally, Professor Mavrophredes says 
that the only forms in which ¢ seems to have resulted from 
two letters, 6. g. od, are simply those mentioned by Dionysius 
and which we have already enumerated. Schleicher also 
completely discards the notion of pronouncing € as dc or σδ. 

The ancient Greeks used to boast of the pretty sound of ¢ 
(Dion. Comp. 14, p. 172, Scif), and a comparison of the Greek 
pronunciation with that of the Western nations will convince 
anybody that the modern Greek pronunciation is by far the 
softer, and consequently it distinctly verifies the statements 
of both Quintilian and Dionysius. The forms viByo, νιβιῶ, 
vilw, τρίβω, τρίβγω, τριβιῶ, τρίζω, μασδὸς, μαζός, φράδω, ppalw 


THE CONSONANTS. 179 


are still prevalent. Again,.the θεὺς (θεὸς) and Διεὺς, Lat. 
Deus, for Ζεὺς, ἀρίζηλος for ἀρίδηλος, etc. show how easily the 
letter ζ passed into 6. These different changes are very com- 
mon in modern Greek and we also get the forms διατάζω for 
διατάγιω, Ταλάζιος for Taddyios, ete. The change of o into 
ζ, as mentioned by Liddell and Scott, is evident from the 
examples Ζιβίνη, Σιβύνη; Ζμύρνα, Σμύρνα ; etc. 

Professor Geldart says the fact that o before » invariably 
sounds as ζ in modern Greek ought to prove the identity of 
the sound of ζ in ancient and modern times. But Professor 
Geldart must certainly be mistaken, since the letter σ does 
not always sound as ¢ before μ᾽; and with the exception of 
the word Suvpvy, where the sound of o approximates that of 
ζ, we know of no other instance in modern Greek where the 
letter o is sounded like ἃ ζ. For instance, the words Spjjves 
(sménos) and Xpvpvatos (smernéos) show decidedly that the 
letter o is not sounded like a ¢; if there are any instances in 
which o sounds like a ¢ before μ, these instances are certainly 
dialectic and not general. On the contrary, the similarity of 
the changes of the letter ζ in ancient and modern Greek, and, 
moreover, the softness of its pronunciation by the modern 
Greeks, prove the identity of the sound of ¢ in ancient and 
modern times. ν 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
Modern Greek. 


Ζῶον, animal, 2000. 
Zavravos, alive, * zondanés. 
Ζῦθος, beer, zéthos. 
Ζωηρὸς, quick, lively, φοδγύϑ. 
Ζήτημα, question ; τὸ ᾿Ανατολικὸν ζήτημα, 
the Eastern Question, t6 anatolikén zétema. 
Zaxapt, sugar, zdhare. 
Ζεστὸς, ἡ; ov, warm, zestos. 
Ζορκάδι (ἡ Aopkas), zorkdathe. 


Znpia, loss, damage, zemiah. 


180. THE CONSONANTS. 


΄ 


Classical. 
Ζωοστάσιον, z0dstdseon. Ζοφερός, zopherés. 
Zwoyovos, 20dgOnos. ZnAnpov, zelémon. 
Zwopayos, zodphigos. Ζηλομανής, zelomanis, 
Zwpos, zores. Ζηλότυπος, zel6tepos, 
Ζωστήρ, zoster. 
Θ 


is pronounced like ἐΐ in the words thin, thick, think. 06 was 
changed into o in the Laconian dialect. We have, for 
instance, in Aristophanes, Thucydides, and several other 
authors’ the forms σέλει, σέτω, σηροκτόνε, σιγῆν, ἀγασός, ὀρσά, 
᾿Ασάνα ᾿Ασαναῖοι, “ τῶ σιῶ σύματος," Σειδέκτας, Σείπομπος, Σήριπ- 
πος, instead of the forms θέλει, θέτω, θηροκτόνε, θιγῆν, ἀγαθός, 
ὀρθή, ᾿Αθάνα, etc., τοῦ θεοῦ θύματος, Θεοδέκτας, Θεόπομπος, Θή- 
ρίππος. 

In modern Greek we have ἀκαντσόχοιρος for ἀκανθόχοιρος, 
ete. 

Besides this pronunciation of th the letter @ must have been 
also originally sounded among some tribes of ancient Greece 
like τη, judging from the fact that this pronunciation of τη is 
even to this day preserved in a number of words, especially 
“ ἐν τοῖς συνδυασμοῖς ἢ x7, pt, στ, Instead of x6, φθ, 6; for in- 
stance: 2 | 


᾿Ἐπλέχτηκα, eplécteka, instead of "Erde x Onv, 
ἘἘχτές, echtés, Ἢ Ἔχθές, 
Φτάνω, phtdno, ἐς Φθάνω, 
᾿ἜἘγράφτηκα, egraphtekah, 74 "Eypapény, 
᾿Εγνωρίστηκα, egnoristeka, τ; ᾿Εγνωρίσθην, 
᾿Αστενής, αϑίοηόθ, φ ᾿Ασθενής, 
᾽οχτρός, ochtrés, ae "Ex Opos. 


Again, in the Latin language @ is rendered by th, e.g. Ther- 
situs, Thyesta, Theopompus, Algisthus. It must be in- 
teresting to the reader to notice how faithfully the modern 
Greeks have preserved the pronunciation of their ancestors, 


THE CONSONANTS. 1981 


so that traces of the various dialectic sounds of the letters are 
still in use. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
Modern Greek. 


Θεία, aunt, théa. Θρησκεία, religion, threskéa. 
Θάλαμος, chamber, thdlamos. Opovos, throne, thronos. 
OdpuBos, tumult, thorevos. Oupos, anger, themos. 


Θρῆνος, lamentation, thrénos. 


Classical. 
Θηλύγλωσσος, theléglossos. Θυροκοπέω, therokopéo. 
Θηλυδρίας, thelethrias. Θυροκόπος, theroképos. 
Θηλάζω, theldzo. OupaaxOns, thersachthis. 
Θηκτός, thektds. Θύννος, thénos. 
K 


before a, 0, w, av, ov is pronounced like 4; but before «, 1, v, ἡ» 

at, εἰ, ot, and before liquids it becomes much softer and has 

a guttural sound. This letter was interchanged in ancient 

Greek with τὶ for instance, we have Τίμων (Zimon) for 

Κίμων (Kimon), πόκε (poke) for πότε (pte), xis for ris (tis). 

So in modern Greek we have the forms σκιλβόω (skilvdo) 

for στιλβόω (steivd0), φκυάριον (phkedrion) for φτυάριον 

(phtedreon), etc. The old Attics often changed x into κ᾿ 
thus, χνόος and xvéos, ete.; this peculiarity is still prevalent 
among the modern Gras. The change of κ into β, as men- 

tioned by Liddell and Scott, is more rare as in τήκω, Lat. ta- 

beo. In a few instances 7 and κ are also found interchanged 

in ancient as well as in modern times, but these forms are 

comparatively rare. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


Modern Greek. 


Κορδέλλα, ribbon, korthéla. 
Κόρφος, bosom, kérphos. 


182 THE CONSONANTS, 


Κορμὶ (capa), body, kormé. 

Κουβαλῶ, to move furniture, koovald, 

Kérra (ὄρνιθα), hen, kota. 

Κρεββάτι, bed, krevate. 

Classical. 

Καθαρπάζω, katharpdzo. Κλεψίφρων, klepsiphron. — 
Καθέλκω, kathélko. Κλεψίνοος, klepsinods. 
Κάθεξις, kathexis. Κλεψίῤῥυτος, klepsiretos. 


Κάθεμα, kathema. 


A 


is pronounced like an 7. Of the so-called liquid letters the 
letter p is both the oldest and hardest, but A is what Profes- 
sor Mavrophredes terms “ μεταγενέστερος ἢ (more recent) and 
“ μαλακώτερος " (softer). Plato attributes gliding or slipperi- 
ness tor. “The sweetest of semivowels,” says Dionysius of 
Halicarnassus. “‘Hdvver μὲν γὰρ (τὴν ἀκοὴν) τὸ ἃ καὶ ἔστι τῶν 
ἡμιφώνων γλυκύτατον " τραχύνει δὲ τὸ ρ καὶ ἔστι τῶν ὁμογενῶν γεν- 
ναιότατον. (π. συνθ. ὄνομ. 14.) Compare Eusthatius, p. 1106. 

The letter A is often written instead of v and p, 6. g. ἦνθον 
divraros for ἦλθον φίλτατος, KpiBavos for κλίβανος. In some 
words y and d are interchanged, i.e. μόγις and μόλις. These 
changes are not uncommon in modern Greek. 

That the letter X is not as old as the letter p is evident 
from the fact that the latter is more generally used in the old 
languages, such as are related to the Greek and Latin, as well 
as from its extensive use in many hard and, so to speak, 
rough-sounding dialects. We are indebted to Professor 
Mavrophredes for the following examples which decidedly 
prove that instead of the Greek and Latin λανθάνω, lateo ; 
φλέγω, fulgeo ; λείπω, linquo ; πλέκω, plecto ; πέλεκυς, λύκος, 
lupus ; ὅλος, τοῦ ὀσκικοῦ, sollus ; πλατύς, latus; ἥλιος, sol; 
πολύς, πόλις, ete. we have the Sanser. rahdmi (ἐγκαταλείπο), 
bhragami, rék/ami, prnak'mi, paracgus, vrkas, sarvas, prthus, 
sirjas (from svdrjas), parus, puri. In like manner we get 


THE CONSONANTS. 188 


in Greek from the one root κρυ the two words κλύω and ἀκρο- 


ὦμαι (= a-K-poF-a-ouar) ; from the root 


apa (πληροῦν) we have 


πίμπλημι and πίμπρημι; from pay, ἀρκέω (ἀρήγω) and ἀλέξω; 
from papy (Sanscr. mrg’) we have ἀμέργω (modern ἀρμέγω) 
and ἀμέλγω; from the root ρυκ we have λύχνος and ῥύχνος 
(this latter form is peculiar to the inhabitants of the island 
of Chio); from yap we get γαρύω (γηρύω), γρῶσσα = γλῶσσα 
(in the T'sakonian dialect) and yeAdw, etc. These examples 
show that p is an older and harder letter than X. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


Modern Greek. 


Adorn, mud, laspe. 
Aarpeia, adoration, latréa. 
Λειποθυμῶ, faint, —_lipothemd. 
Λεμόνι, lemon, leméni. 


Classical. 
Aevxavia, lephkanta. 


Λέπω, lépo. 
Λέσβιος, lésvios. 
Λαπαρός, laparés. 


M 


Δερόνω, to soil, leréno. 
Λυόνω, to dissolve, ledno. 
Λύπη, sorrow, lépe. 


Λαοτρόφος, laotrdphos. 
AavOave, lanthdno. 
Adan, lape. 

Δάσανον, ldsanon. 


is pronounced like m in man. There is no dispute concern- 


ing the pronunciation of this letter 


and the same dialectic 


changes which occur in ancient Greek, such as » into 7 and 
p into B, i.e. βροτός, μορτός, etc., are not uncommon in mod- 


ern Greek. 


a 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 


Modern Greek. 


Μεταξὺ, meanwhile, etc. 
Μεταφράζω, to translate, 
Μεσάνυκτα, midnight, 

MeraBdrra, to paint over, Mi 
Μηδαμινὸς, a man of no importance, 
Μῆκος, length, 


’ 
metaxt. 
metaphrdzo. 
mesdnecta. 
metavapto. 
mithaminos. 

- 
mékos. 


184 THE CONSONANTS. 


Classical. 
Mnvurtis, minitis. Mirus, mitis. 
Μήνυτρον, minitron. Μήστωρ, mistor. 
Μήνιμα, minima. Mnpvopat, miriome. 
Mnvickos, miniskos. Μήτρα, mitra. 
Μητίομαι, mitiome. Μεγάθυμος, megathimos. 
N 


is pronounced like n in now, never. There is no difference 
of opinion as to the pronunciation of this letter, and the 
euphonic changes, such as ν into y before the palatals y, x, x, 
and ἕ, and ν into μ before the labials 2, 7, ¢, y, and ν into » 
before another \, and ν into p before another p, etc., are still 
prevalent in modern Greek. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUUCIATION. 
Modern Greek. 


Νεροχύτης, sink, nerohétes. Νύχι, nail, né hi. 
Nepov, water, neron. Novvos, godfather, noundés, 
Νίπτω, to wash, nipto. Νυστάζω, to be sleepy, nistdzo. 
Νήπιος, baby (silly), nipios. Νεκρός, a dead man, _nechrds. 
Classical. 

Namn, ndpe. Ναοπόλος, naopdlos. 

Νάρκισσος, ndrkissos. Ναοφύλαξ, naophélahz. 

Napa, nama. Napdirns, narthitis. 

Ναννιόν, nanidn. Νάρδος, ndrthos. 

Ἐ 


The common sound of this letter is that of 2 in axiom, but 
much harder. After y, v, » it generally has the sound of gs, 
e. g. τὸν ξένον (pronounced ton gsénon). The pronunciation 
of g é, and w by the modern Greeks entirely verifies the 
statements of Dionysius of Halicarnassus and of Phrynichus. 
Dionysius says: “ Τριῶν δὲ ὄντων τῶν ἄλλων γραμμάτων ἃ δὴ διπλᾶ 
καλεῖται, τὸ μὲν € μᾶλλον ἡδύνει τὴν ἀκοὴν τῶν ἑτέρων " τὸ μὲν γὰρ 


THE CONSONANTS. = 185 


E διὰ τοῦ k, τὸ δὲ W διὰ τοῦ π᾿ τὸν συριγμὸν ἀποδίδωσι, ψιλῶν ὄντων 
ἀμφοτέρων. . . .« . Phrynichus says: “Nam multo molliorem 
sonem habet ψ quam Ps vel BS sicut ergo ψ melius (mollius 2) 
sonat, sic etiam x quam 65 vel cs. Its dialectic changes, 
especially transposition in the Afolic and Doric, of the con- 
sonants which form &, as ξίφος, ξιφύδριον, Dor. σκίφος, σκιφύ- 
δριον, are obsolete in modern Greek. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
Modern Greek. 


Eepva, to vomit, xernd, Enpaive, to dry, wiréno. 
Enpos, dry, xirés. ᾿ς Ξεσκέπαστος, uncovered, xesképahstos. 
Ξοινὸς, sower,  xends. Ξεπερνῶ, to surpass, xepernd, 
Classical. 
_ Ξάνθος, xdnthos. Euvds, xinds. 
Ξανθόουλος, xanthdoulos, Ξυνήων, xinion. 
Eevdripos, renotimos. Ξυλοφανής, xilophanis. 


Revotpopew, xenotrophéo. 


II 


has the power of an English p, but when it follows y or v it 
takes the sound of 4. In modern as in ancient Greek it is 
sometimes interchanged with soft 8, as in πάλλω, βάλλω, and 
the aspirate ¢, as πανός, φανός. 


_ EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
Modern Greek. 


Παραφρονῶ, to despise, paraphroné. 
Παρειὰ, cheek, paria. 
Παρεκλήσιον, a country-church, pareklésion. 
Παραπόρτι, a back-door, ᾿ paraporti. 
Tlapaira, to give up, pareté. 
Πάππος, grandfather, papos. 
Παντοῦ, everywhere, pandot. 
Παραβλέπω, to neglect, paravlépo. 


Παληκάρι, a brave young man, palikari. 


186 THE CONSONANTS. 


Classical. 
Παρατριβή, paratrivé. Παραχορδίζω, parahorthizo. 
Παρατύπωσις, paratéposis. Παραχέω, parahéo. 
Ilapatporn, paratropé. Παρέκ, parck. 
Παράτρητος, pardtretos. IlapexBaive, parekvéno. 
Παρατρέχω, paratrého. Παρέκβασις, parékvasis, 
Παρατρέφω, paratrépho. Παρεκβολή, parekvol€. 
Παραψαλίζω, parapsalizo. TlapevoxAnats, parendchlesis. 
Παραψάλλω, parapsdllo. Παρεμβολή, paremvole. 

Ῥ 


is pronounced like the English 7, but with more force. Plato 
says that in the utterance of p the tongue is in a state of 
vibration. Dionysius calls it a “rough letter”: “ Τραχύνει δὲ 
τὸ p καὶ ἔστι τῶν ὁμογενῶν γενναιότατον." 

The letter p was always sounded hard at the beginning of 
a word, with the exception of the two words ῥάρος and ῥάριον 
(Ὕμνω eis Any. 450), both of which have the smooth breath- 
ing. This is evident from the fact that the letter p, when 
at the beginning of a word, always had the rough breathing, 
as well as from its doubling when preceded by a vowel, e. g. 
pinto, ῥάπτω, ῥητός, ἔρριπτον, ἔρραψα, appntos. A scholar inti- 
mates that the rough breathing received by this reduplication 
a certain “solidity and concentration.” 

Hence it becomes evident that the rule of the grammarians 
— - Τὸ ῥῶ ἐὰν δισσὸν γένηται ἐν μέσῃ λέξει; TO μὲν πρῶτον ψιλοῦ- 
ται; τὸ δὲ δεύτερον δασύνεται : οἷον ἐπίῤῥημα, ἄῤῥωστος, συῤῥάπτω, 
etc., ψιλοῦται δὲ τὸ μὲν πρῶτον, διότι οὐδέποτε συλλαβὴ “Ἑλληνικῆς 
λέξεως εἰς δασὺ λήγει. Τὸ δὲ δεύτερον δασύνεται, διότι φίλαρχός 
ἐστιν ἡ δασεῖα ' ἢ —is not. after all, as a modern Greek inti- 
mates, much of a rule. Because, whilst the letter p at the 
beginning of a word, both by its rough breathing and hard 
sound, renders the final vowel of a preceding word in the 
dactylic hexameter and the iambic trimeter of the dramatists 
as well as in the anapests long by position, as in II. ὦ, 755: ᾿ 


““ Πολλὰ ῥυστάζεσκεν ἑοῦ περὶ ofp érdpoo!” 


THE CONSONANTS. 187 


it often happens that for the sake of the meter in the same 
word the letter p is not doubled though a vowel precedes it, 
as is evident from the Homeric ἔρεζον, ἔρεξε, ἀμφιρύτη ; also in 
Soph. Antig. 950: 


“* Kal Ζηνὸς ταμιεύεσκε γονὰς χρυσορύτους,᾽ 


and in Aristoph. Θεσμ. 655, διάριψον, and so on. 

The rough breathing of p at the beginning of a word has 
often, as Professor Mavrophredes asserts, an etymological 
signification; that is to say, it takes the place of some omitted 
consonant, e. g. pérw = Sanser. sarpdmi, Lat. serpo; ῥοφέω, 
Lat. sorbeo ; ῥήγνυμι, Lat. frango; ῥιγέω, Lat. frigeo ; piv(s), 
Sanser. ghrdna-m ; ῥῖπος = Lat. scirpus ; ῥόδον, ALol. Bpddov ; 
ῥινός = Ἐρινός ; ῥέγχω = Ἐρέγχω, Lat. rugio ; ete. 

In modern Greek, although p is pronounced more strongly 
than the English r, the rough breathing of the letter p at the 
beginning of a word is entirely lost. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
Modern Greek. | 


“‘Paxn, back, rahe. 
Ῥοχαλίζω, to snore, rohalizo. 
Ῥοδάκινον, peach, - rothakinon. 
“Ρουχικὰ, clothes, roohikd. 
Ῥοπαλον, ὦ club (to strike with), répalon. 
“Pamrpta, seamstress, rdptria. 

Classical. 
“Ῥᾳθυμία, rathemia. Ῥάπτης, rdptis. 
Ῥάδιος, rdthios. ‘Paros, raptds. 
“Ῥάσσω, rdsso. “Pau, ramphe. 
“‘PadidoOnkn, raphithothéke. Ῥάμνος, rdmnos. 
“‘Paopa, rdsma. Ῥέπω, repo. 

> 


is pronounced like s in soon, see. Plato calls o an aspirate, 
and Dionysius a hissing and disagreeable letter. 


188 THE CONSONANTS. 


A scholar says that in modern Greek the letter o before a 
semivowel (β, y, 5, ζ, A, #5 ν» p) 18 sounded like a & So also 
in the proclitics τούς, τάς before the same consonants; τοὺς 
βασιλεῖς τῆς γῆς = touz vaselés tez ghés. | 

But this is not so. The letter o does not sound in modern 
Greek like a ¢ before the letters mentioned. The statement 
in “modern Greek” is too broad. This pronunciation is 
simply dialectic and not general. Now, the letter o was pro- 
nounced like a among some tribes of ancient Greece especi- 
ally before the letters y, δ, 8, and before the’ liquids A, p, μ. 
Thus, we find in many inscriptions belonging to the first 
century A. D. many words written with a ¢ instead of a a; 
e. g. Zudpaydos, Ζμύρνη, Zusxpos, ZBéou. The writer Lucian 
also in his “ἐν τῇ δίκῃ τῶν dovneytwv” represents the letter o 
as complaining of ¢ and saying, “ ὅτι δ᾽ ἀνεξίκακόν εἰμι γράμμα 
μαρτυρεῖτέ μοι Kal αὐτοὶ, μηδέποτε ἐγκαλέσαντι τῷ ζῆτα σμάραγδον 
ἀποσπάσαντι καὶ πᾶσαν ἀφελόμένῳ τὴν Σμύρνην." Compare 
Eustathius (pp. 217, 228) and Sextus Empiricus, etc. We 
must not omit to mention that we have no proof that this 
dialectic pronunciation of « was prevalent among the tribes 
of ancient Greece, and in the very best period of the Hellenic 
language. Now, this dialectic pronunciation of o, which pre- . 
vails in some sections of modern Greece, certainly proves that 
the modern Greeks have not only preserved the pronuncia- 
tion of their ancestors, but even their dialectic variations. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
Modern Greek. 
Στρήφω, to twist, strépho. Στόλος, a "οὶ, stdlos. 
Στοίχημα, a bet,  stchema. Σύγχυσις, a confusion, sénhesis. 
Στερῶ, to deprive, sterrd. 


Classical. - 
Σκληρός, sklerds, Σκινθαρίζω, skinthartzo. 
Σκιρτάω, skirtdo. Σκινδάλαμος; skinthdlamos. 


Σκιράφειον, skirdphion. Skipds, skirds. 


THE CONSONANTS. .. 189 


5 


is pronounced like ¢ in ¢ell, task, tin. After v it is generally 
sounded like a d, as ἔντομος = endomos. This pronunciation 
of the letter τ as d after ν is very old, judging from the fact 
that in an old Latin inscription (see Scalig. Vetust. Rom.) 
we find “διὰ πάντων ἢ written dia pandon. Again, as regards 
“expression of sound” and “euphony ” the reader, if he pro- 
nounces the following Homeric line: 


**TloAAGd δ᾽ dvavra, κάταντα, πάραντά τε, δόχμια τ᾽ ἦλθον," 


will observe that the sound of τ as ἃ αἱ after ν is much more 
“majestic” and “ expressive.” 


- 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
Modern Greek. 


Toxos, interest (on money), tokos. 
Τίποτε, nothing, tépote. 
Τιποτένιος, good for nothing, tepoténios. 
Τιμόνι, rudder, temont. 
Τρίζω, grind, trézo. 
Τσακόνω = ddpaxve, to catch, tsakono. 
Classical. 

Tapoos, tarsds. Ταράσσω, tardso. 

Tapoow, tars0d. Tapakis, tdrazxis. 

Ταρβέω, tarvéo. Ταριχέμπορος, tarihémboros. 

® 


is pronounced like ph in philosopher. In some parts of an- 
cient Greece, especially in the Peloponnesus, the letter ¢ was 
often used instead of «; therefore it is highly probable that 
the letter ¢ was originally pronounced by some as a x; that 
is to say, like the Latin g. In many ancient inscriptions we 
_ find the letter φ used instead of x, as for instance ἜΡΩΣ = ὅρ- 
κον, Μενεσιφράτους = Μενεσικράτους. 


190 THE CONSONANTS. 

Now, this hypothesis which we advance concerning the 
pronunciation of ¢ (as a x) is rendered highly probable from 
the etymology of some words. For instance the word za- 
φρων, a scholar asserts, is akin to the Sanscr. pakdémi; in the 
word Avdoddpxos we see that the first part, λύκο-ς is akin to 
the Sanser. vskas, Lat. lupus, which perhaps came from lu- 
quus, in this example we see plainly that ¢=to the Latin q. 
Whether there are any traces of the pronunciation of ¢ as a x 
among the modern inhabitants of Peloponnesus, we have not 
been able to ascertain. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
Modern Greek. 


φΦθάσιμον, arrival, phthdsimon. Φλόγα, flame, phloga. 
Φθηνὰ, cheap, phthend. Φυλλάδιον, pamphlet, phildthion. 
Φλυτζάνι (τὸ), cup, phletzani. Φωλεὰ, nest, pholed. 
Classical. 
Φιλακόλουθος, philakoloothos. Φιλάρματος, phildrmatos. 
Φιλάδελφος, phildthelphos. Φιλήρετμος, philéretmos. 
Φθόνος, phthdnos. Φιλοθηρία. philotheria. 
Φιλήμων, philémon. Φιλόδουπος, phildthoopos. 
Φιλένδοτος, philénthotos. Φιλόδαφνος, phildthaphnos. 


Φιλάργυρος, phildryeros. 


Χ 


is pronounced like the English ἢ in the word house, or much 
more like the German / in the word haben. y and x are 
often interchanged both in ancient and modern Greek, e. g. 
δέχομαι = δέκομαι; we also find it interchanged in modern 
Greek after o, as σκίζω for σχίζω. 


EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
F Modern Greek. 
Χαλνῶ, to spoil, halnd. Xapri, paper, harti. 
Xapevos, lost, — haménos. Χαψιά, a mouthful, hapsid. 
Χαρὰ, joy, hard. Χαῦνος, lazy, havnos. 


THE CONSONANTS. - (ee 


Classical. 
Xon, hoe. Xvoos, hnods. 
Xoupas, herds. Χορδοτόνος, horthotonos, 
Χνοάζω, hnodzo. 
Ψ 


is sounded like za, 6. g. 


Modern Greek. 
Wnros, roasted, psetos. Ψαλίδι, scissors, psalithi. 
Ψωνίζω, purchase, psonizo. 
Classical. 
Ψαφαρός, psaphares. Ψαμάθη, psamathi. 
Vado, psdo. Vara, psdllo. 
WVapabos, psdmathos, 


CHAPTER VI. 
COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS. 


wy 

before x, yy & x is pronounced like v (ng). For example: 
before x, as in ἀγκίον, pronounced ankéon ; before y, as in 
ἄγγελος, pronounced dng-gelos; before g as in ἄγξις, pro- 


nounced dnais ; before x, as in ἀγχόνη, pronounced anhéne. 


‘MII 
in middle syllables is pronounced like mb; as ἄμπελος, pro- 
nounced dmbelos. 7 


͵ 


ΝΤ 


occurs only in middle syllables in pure Greek words; when 
v ends one word and τ rere the next, the latter takes the 
sound of d; for example: τὸν ταῦρον, pronounced ton sic ; 
τὸν τάφον, pronounced ton daphon. 


K 
in the middle of a word and after y or ν in the same word or 
in consecutive words partakes of the sound of y (very soft) ; 
for example, ἐγκέφαλος, pronounced eng-géphalos ; τὸν κῆπον; 
pronounced ton ghépon. 


CII 
at the beginning of a word which follows one ending with v 
is sounded like a 6; for example: τὴν πόλιν, pronounced tén 


COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS. . 198 


bdélen. It likewise takes the sound of ὅ after » in the middle 
of a word; e.g. τύμπανον, témbanon. 


( % (dialectic pronunciation) 
before β, δ, p, is pronounced like a z or like the French 8 in the 
word rose; for example: before 8, as in σβεστήρ, pronounced 
zvestér ; before 6, as in ᾿Ασδρούβας, pronounced azthroivas ; 
before p, as in Ἰσραήλ, pronounced izrael. 


CHAPTER VIL 


\7 


EXAMPLES OF MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 


For the purpose of connected illustration, and that the 
‘modern Greek pronunciation may be presented to the student 
as definitely and clearly as possible, we give here selections 
from ancient and modern Greek authors, putting under each 
word of the original text the English symbols required to 
represent accurately the modern Greek method: 


From Xenophon’s “ Anabasis.” 


Ἔ δὲ 3 , Ν e a Ν Ν a , A 
πειτα δὲ, ἀναμνήσω yap ὑμᾶς καὶ τοὺς TOV προγόνων τῶν 
Eipita thai, anamniso ghar emds ke toos ton sproghénon ton 
ἡμετέρων κινδύνους, ἵνα εἰδῆτε ὡς ἀγαθοῖς τε ὑμῖν προσήκει εἶναι 
emetéron kinthinoos, éna ithétai os aghathis te emin proséki ἐμαὶ 
σώζονταί τε σὺν τοῖς θεοῖς καὶ ἐκ πάνυ δεινῶν οἱ ἀγαθοί. ᾿Ελθόντων 
sdzonde te sin tis theis ke ek pani thindn e aghatht. LElthéndon 
Ν Ν Π a Ν a \ > A X 6 a ’ ε 9 
μὲν γὰρ Ἱ]ερσῶν καὶ τῶν σὺν αὐτοῖς παμπληθεῖ στόλῳ ὡς ἀφανι- 
men ghar Person ke ton sin aftis pamplethé  stélo os aphani- 
΄ μ᾿ 3 6 ΄ ε el ΕἸ Ἂς τ a“ , oF 
οὔντων τὰς ᾿Αθήνας, ὑποστῆναι αὐτοῖς ᾿Αθηναῖοι τολμήσαντες ἐνίκη- 
‘odndon tas Athinas, iposténe aftis  Athinét tolmisandes entke- 
σαν αὐτοὺς καὶ εὐξάμενοι τῇ ᾿Αρτέμιδι ὁπόσους κατακάνοιεν τῶν 
san aftods ke efxdiment te Arthémithi opdsoos katakdnien ton 
πολεμίων τοσαύτας χιμαίρας καταθύσειν τῇ θεῷ, ἐπεὶ οὐκ εἶχον 
polemton toséftas himéras katathisin te thed ept ook thon 
ε Ν ες ἊΝ Υ 3 a“ ai so peo 6 , vig 
ixavas εὑρεῖν, ἔδοξεν αὐτοῖς Kat ἐνιαυτὸν πεντακοσίας θύειν, καὶ ἔτι 
ekanis evrin, éthoxen aftis kat? eniafton pendakosias thiin, ke éti 
καὶ νῦν ἀποθύουσιν. 
ke nin apothtoosin. 


EXAMPLES OF MODERN PRONUNCIATION. 195 


From “Πλάτωνος ᾿Απολογία Σωκράτους." 


πελευτῶν οὖν ἐπὶ τοὺς χειροτέχνας ἦα" ἐμαυτῷ γὰρ ἕξυνήδειν 
Teleftén oon epi toos hirotéchnas éé. emaftéd ghar sxinithin 
οὐδὲν ἐπισταμένῳ, ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν, τούτους δὲ γ᾽ nde ὅτι εὑρήσοι- 
oothen epistaméno, os Epos ipin, todtoos thai gh’ éthin ti evrisi- 
Ν Ν μ᾽ 3 / Ν ΄ Ν 3 3 , 
μι πολλὰ καὶ καλὰ ἐπισταμένους" Kal τούτου μὲν οὐκ ἐψεύ- 
mi polla ke kala epistaménoos. ke tootoo men ook epséf- 
> 3 δι ἃ . .Ἀ 3 3 , Ν vd 
σθην, ἀλλ᾽ ἠπίσταντο ἃ ἐγὼ οὐκ ἡπιστάμην Kal μου ταύτῃ 
sthin, al’  epistando a eghd. ook ipistamin ke moo taéafte 
σοφώτεροι ἧσαν" ἀλλ᾽, ὦ ἄνδρες ᾿Αθηναῖοι, ταὐτόν μοι ἔδοξαν ἔχειν 
sophdtert isan, all’, o dudres Athinéi, ἐαγίόμ me éthoxan chin 
ε 7 Ν ε ‘4 Ν ε » θ Ν ὃ ’ὔ Ν Ν 
ἁμάρτημα, ὅπερ καὶ οἱ ποιηταί, καὶ οἱ ἀγαθοὶ δημιουργοί" διὰ τὸ 
amértema oper ke e wpieté, ke e aghathé themioorghé. thia te 
τὴν τέχνην καλῶς ἐξεργάζεσθαι ἕκαστος ἠξίου καὶ τ᾿ ἄλλα τὰ 
tin téhnin kalés exerghdzesthe éhastos exioo ke ¢ dlla ta 
, , > Ν 2A 4 ε [4 ee: 
μέγιστα σοφώτατος εἶναι, καὶ αὐτῶν αὕτη ἣ πλημμέλεια ἐκείνην 
mégista sofotatos tue, ke aftin afte 6 plimmélia  ekinin 
τὴν σοφίαν ἀπέκρυπτεν: ὥστ᾽ ἐμὲ ἐμαυτὸν ἀνερωτᾷν ὑπὲρ τοῦ 
tin softan apékripten. dst? emé emaftén anerotdn iper too 
χρησμοῦ πότερα δεξαίμην av οὕτως ὥσπερ ἔχω ἔχειν, μήτε TL σοφὸς 
hrismod ρμόΐογα thexémin an odtos dsper ého éhin, méte te sophds 
Xx Ν δι ἘΣ , / > Ν Ν EOE see , a 
bv τὴν ἐκείνων σοφίαν μήτε ἀμαθὴς τὴν ἀμάθιαν, ἢ ἀμφότερα ἃ 
on ten ekinon sofian méte amathis ten amiéthean, 6 amphotera a 
ἐκεῖνοι " ἔχουσιν exew* ἀπεκρινάμην οὖν ἐμαυτῷ καὶ τῷ χρησμῷ; ὅτι 
ekini. éhoosin éhin.  apekrindmin oon emaftd ke to hrismd, ott 
μοι λυσιτελοῖ ὥσπερ ἔχω ἔχειν. 
me lisitelé dsper ého Chin. 


From a Greek Newspaper, October 18, 1876. 


Τὸ δόγμα τῆς συνταγματικῆς θεωρίας ἀντίκειται καὶ εἰς τὴν φύσιν 
To thighma tis sintagmatikis theortas andikete ke is ten phisin 
τοῦ ἀνθρώπου καὶ εἰς τὴν φύσιν τῶν πραγμάτων. Ἢ δευτέρα μεγάλη 
too anthrépoo ke is ten phisin don pragmdton. E theftéra φιογάϊὲ 
δύναμις τῆς συνταγματικῆς θεωρίας εἶνε ἡ ἀντιπροσωπεία. “O Bov- 
thinamis tis sentagmatikés theortas ine 6 *andiprosopia. O voo-. 


196 EXAMPLES OF MODERN PRONUNCIATION. 


λευτὴς ἔχει ἀπόλυτον ἐξουσίαν va διαθέσῃ τὴν τιμὴν τὴν περιουσίαν 
leftés ¢éhi apoliton exoosian na thiathése tin dimin tin sperioostan 

ἑνὸς ἑκατομμυρίου Kat πλέον ἀνθρώπων, χωρὶς νὰ ἢ ὑποχρεωμένος νὰ 
ends ekatommtirioo ke pléon anthrépon, horis na e epohreoménos na 
δώσῃ περὶ τούτου λόγον. ᾿Ἐννοῦσι τοιοῦτον συμβόλαιον οἱ ἄνθρωποι 
those pert todtoo légon. LEnnoodsi tiodton simvdleon e dnthrope 
τοῦ δικαίου; Κυβέρνησις ἐν συνταγματικῇ πολιτείᾳ εἶνε οἱ ὑπουργοί. 
too thikéoo? Kevérnisis en sindagmatiké politia éne e epoorgé. 

Πρώτυπον μεγάλου πρωθυπουργοῦ ἐν ᾿Αγγλίᾳ ἐστι ὃ λόρδος Οὗάλ- 
Protepon megdloo prothipoorgod en Δηλίία esté o lirthos Οοάϊ- 
TwA περὶ οὗ λέγει συγγραφεύς τις ὅ τι “ ἐπὶ τῆς κυβερνήσεως τοῦ 
pol pert oo léyi  singraféfs tis o ti “epi tis kiverniseos too- 
Οὐάλπωλ ἡ διαφθορὰ κατήντησε σύστημα διωργανισμένον,᾽" ἕτερος 
Oodlpol e thiafthoré katindise sistema  thiorganisménon,” éteros 
δὲ ὅτι “ οὐδεὶς κάθ᾽ ὅλον τὸ Βασίλειον τῆς ᾿Αγγλίας ὑπεστήριζεν 
the oti “oothis kath’ dlon to Vasilion tis —Anklias  ipestérizen 

αὑτὸν ἐκ πεποιθήσεως." 


afton ek pepithiseos.” 


A Modern Greek Prayer offered before performing the Sacrament 
of the Eucharist. 
"Aptos Ζωῆς, αἰωνιζούσης γενέσθω μοι, τὸ Ξῶμά σου τὸ ἅγιον, 
Artos Zots, ebnizodsis genéstho me, to Séma soo to dghion 
εὔσπλαγχνε Κύριε, καὶ τὸ τίμιον Αἷμα, καὶ νόσων πολυτρόπων ἀλεξη-᾿ 
éfsplachne Kirie, ke to timion Ema, ke néson politrépon  alexi- 
τήριον. 
térion. 
Βεβηλωθεὶς, ἔργοις ἀτόποις ὃ δείλαιος, τοῦ σοῦ ἀχράντου Σώμα- 
Vevelothis, érghis atépis ο thileos too soo achriéndoo Séma- 
τος, καὶ Θείου Αἵματος, ἀνάξιος ὑπάρχω, Χριστὲ τῆς μετουσίας, ἧς 
tos, ke Thioo Ematos, andéxios epérho, Christé tis metoosias, is 
μὲ agiwcov..... Δακρύων μοι παράσχου Χριστέ pavidas, τὸν ῥύπον 
me axioson. Thakrion me pardshoo Christé rantthos, ton ripon 
τῆς καρδίας μου καθαιρούσας, ws ἂν εὐσυνειδότως κεκαθαρμένος, 
-tis karthias moo katherodsas, os an efsinithétos kekatharménos 


EXAMPLES OF MODERN PRONUNCIATION. 197 


πίστει προσέρχωμαι καὶ φόβῳ Δέσποτα; ἐν τῇ μεταλήψει τῶν Θείων 
pisti prosérhome, ke phévo Théspota, en te metalipsi ton Thion 
δώρων σου. 
théron 800. 
Eis ἄφεσιν γενέσθω μοι τῶν πταισμάτων, τὸ ἄχραντόν σου Σῶμα 
Is dphesin genéstho me ton sptesmdton, to dchranddn soo ϑόρια 
καὶ Θεῖον Αἷμα, εἰς Πνεύματος “Ayiov τε κοινωνίαν, καὶ εἰς αἰώνιον 
ke Thion Ema, is Pnévmatos Aghioo te kinonian, ke is ednion 
ζωὴν φιλάνθρωπε, καὶ παθῶν καὶ θλίψεων ἀλλοτρίωσιν. 
zoin fildnthrope, ke pathon ke thlipseon allotriosin. 


oc 6 


ch A = we ὴ 24 . — Ρ —_ 
διχέν du ἐξ ar = We eel Ὁ 
ΚΕΝ, ΚΕ πὲ δῆς δα LAB 


νι. : 





de PAL RE ae, 





APPENDIX. 





BREATHINGS. 


THERE are two breathings. The rough breathing ‘ (spiri- 
tus asper) and the smooth breathing ” (spiritus lenis). They 
are indicated by the marks ‘ ” placed over the initial vowel. 

Words beginning with a diphthong take their respective 
breathings over the second vowel: αἰδηψὸς, εἶδος, edu. But 
in the improper diphthongs . never takes the breathing, even 
when it stands upon the line: Ὠιδεῖον = ὠδεῖον. 

The following words have the rough breathing: 

1. The initial consonant p: thus, ῥήτωρ; except *Papos, 
Rarus ; 'Ῥάριος, α, ov, from Raros, Rarean: esp. the Rarian 
plain near Eleusis; Ῥάρος, a child of premature birth ; but 
pp appears in most editions Ap: παλίῤῥοια. 

2. All words beginning with v: thus, ὕδωρ, ὕελος. 

3. The articles 6, ἡ, οἱ, at. 

4, The relative pronouns and the relative adverbs: ὅς, 7, 6, 
οἷος, ὅσος, ἡλίκος, ὧς, ὅπως, ἡνίκα, etc. 

5. The personal pronouns of the first and second person 
Plural and the third person Singular: ἡμεῖς, οὗ, of, ἕ, ete. 

6. The possessive pronouns which are formed from the 
stem of the personal pronouns ἡμέτερος. So also the reflexive 
pronouns of the third person ἑαυτοῦ, ἑαυτῆς. 

7. The numerals εἷς, ἐξ, ἑπτὰ, ἑκατὸν, and all their deriva- 
tives, 6. ρ΄. ἑνιαῖος, ἕβδομος, ἑπτακόσιοι. 


Remark 1. The following words, which are alphabetically clas- 
sified, and their derivatives have also the rough breathing : 


202 
A. 
GBpa, a favorite slave. 


ἁβρὸς, graceful. 

ἅγιος, devoted to the gods. 

ἁγνὸς, holy, sacred, ete. 

“Ayvev or “Ayvev, Hagnon (a 
proper name). 

ἅγος, €os, reverence. 

dye for ἃ ἐγώ. 

ἅδε, 3 sing. aor. 2 of ἁνδάνω, Hom. 
inf. ἁδεῖν. | 

ἅδης, the nether world. 

ἅδον for éadov, aor. 2 of ἁνδάνω. 

adpos, thick. 

ἁδύπνοος, Dor. for ἡδύπνοος. 

ddvs, Dor. for ἡδύς. 

ἅζομαι. to stand in awe of. 

αἷμα, blood. 

αἵμνιον, a basin for blood. 

Αἵμονες, wv, the Hamoneans (in- 
habitants of Hemonia). 

Αἱμόνιος, Hemonios (a proper 
name). 

αἷμος Or aids, οὔ, prob. any scratch- 
ing point, as of thorns. 

Alyos, Hamus (a mountain). 

αἱμύλος, winning. 

αἱμωδέω, to have the teeth on edge. 

αἵμων, ovos, = δαίμων, knowing, 
skilful. 

Αἵμων, Hemon (a proper name). 

αἵνω, to sift, to winnow. 

αἵρεσις, a taking, conquering. 

aipéw, to grasp, to seize. 

ἅλας, salt, 

ἁλεία, fishing. 

ἅλεται, Ep. for ἅληται, subj. aor. 2 
of GAopat, to leap. 

ἁλέως, adv. from ἁλής, Hipp. 





APPENDIX. 


“Αλια, ἃ festival of the Rhodians. 
“AXia, as, Ion. for ‘AXin, Halia (a 
Nereid). 
ἁλία, Ion. addin, an assembly. 
᾿Αλιαί, ὧν, Halie (a city). 
“AXlaptos, Haliartus (a city). 
“Αλιάς, the territory of Παίϊω. 
ἁλιβδύω for ἁλιδύω, to sink in the 
sea." 
ἁλιεὺς, a fisher. 
ἁλίζω, to gather, 
“Αλιζώνιον, Halizonium (a city). 
᾿Αλιθέρσης, Halithersis (a proper 
name). 
“Αλικαρνασσὸς, Halicarnassus. 
ἁλικία, Dor. for ἡλικία. 
«“Αλικύαι, dv, Halicye (a city). 
“AXixupva, Halicyrna (a region of 
ZEtolia). 
᾿Αλιμήδη, Halimede (a Nereid). 
“Αλιμοῦς, Halimus (a deme of the 
Attic tribe Leontis). 
ἅλιος for ἥλιος. 
ἅλιος = μάταιος, fruitless. 
“Adwos, Halius (a proper name). 
ἅλις, in heaps. 
“AXioapva, Halisarna (a city). 
ἁλισγέω, ὦ, to pollute. 
ἁλίσκομαι, to be taken. 
᾿Αλισόδημος, Halisodemus (a poet). 
ἅλλομαι, to spring, leap. 
ἅλμη, sea-water. 
-"Adpos, Halmus (a proper name). 
ddoupyis, a purple robe. 
ἁλουργός. dyed with sea-purple, 
ἁλόω = ἁλίσκομαι. 
ἅλς, a grain or lump of salt. 
ἅλυσις, a chain. 
‘Ada, a festival of Ceres. 


APPENDIX, 


dAwevs, one who works on a thresh- 
ing-floor. Ὁ 

ἁλώῃ, Ep. for ἁλῷ, 3 sing. subj. 
aor. 2 of ἁλίσκομαι. 

ἁλώϊος = ἁλωεινός, used in a thresh- 
ing-floor. 

᾿Αλωΐς = ᾿Αλωάς, Theocr. 7, 155. 

ἁλώκαντι, Dor. for ἑαλώκασι, 3 pl. 
perf. of ἁλίσκομαι. 

ἁλώμεναι, Ep. for ἁλῶναι, inf, aor. 2 
of ἁλίσκομαι. 

ἅλων, wvos, 7, = ἅλως. 

ἁλῶναι, inf. aor. of ἁλίσκομαι. 

ἁλωνεύομαι, dep. to work on a 
threshing floor. 

ἅλως = a threshing-floor. 

ἁλώω, Ep. for ἁλῶ, subj. aor. 2 of 
ἁλίσκομαι. 

ἅμα, adv. at once. 

᾿Αμαδρυάς, usu. in plur., the Hama- 
dryades (nymphs). 

ἁμάμαξυς, a vine trained on two 
poles. 

ἅμαξα, a heavy wagon. 

‘Apagia, Hamazia (a city). 

ἁμαρτάνω, to miss. 

ἁμαρτῆ, adv. together. 

ἅμιλλα, a contest. 

ἁμὶς (καὶ duis), a ship. 

ἅμμα a knot. 

ἁνδάνω, to please. 

ἁπαλὸς, tender. 

ἁπάντη, everywhere. 

ἁπάντοτε, always. 

ἅπαξ, once. 

ἁπλοῦς, simplex. 

ἅπτρα, the wick of a lamp. 

ἅπτω, to fasten. ὰ 

ἅρκυς (ἀττικῶς), hunter’s net. 





208 


ἅρμα, a chariot. 

"Appa, Harma (a city). 

“Appatos, Harmatus (a promon- 
tory). 

‘Appatovs, Harmatus (a city). 

ἁρμόζω, to join. 

‘Appovidns, Harmonides (a proper 
name). 

ἁρπάζω, to carry off. 

‘Apradiov, Harpalion (a proper 
name). 

"Aprados, Harpalus 
name). 

‘Aprddvkos, Harpalycus (a proper 
name). 

ἁρπεδόνη, a rope. 

ἁρπέζα, a hedge. 

"Apmuwa, Harpina (a place in Elis). 

“Aptroxpatns, Harpocrates (a proper 
name). 

“Αρποκρατίων, Harpocration (a 
proper name). 

ἽἌρπυιαι, the Harpies. 

ἁψίκορος, fastidious, 

ἁψίς, a tying. 


(a proper 


E. 


ἕαδα, perf 2 of ἁνδάνω. 

ἑάλωκα, perf. of ἁλίσκομαι. 

ἑαλώκειν for κέναι, inf. perf. of 
ἁλίσκομαι. 

ἑανηφόρος, a thin, light robe. 

ἑανός, ἡ, ov, fit for wearing. 

ἕαται, 3 pl. pres. from ἧμαι, Ion. 
for ἦνται. 

ἑαυτοῦ, As, of himself. 

ἑάφθη, Hom., only found in 1]. ν, 
543, and &, 419. 

ἕβδομος, the seventh. 


204 


"EBpawos, Hebrew. N. T. 

"EBpos, the Hebrus. 

édavos, epith. of oil in Hom., 
pleasant. 

ἕδνα, nuptial gifts. 

ἕδος, stool. 

ἑδοῦμαι, fut. of ἕζομαι. 

ἕδρα, a chair. 

ἑέσσατο, 3 sing. aor. mid. Ep. of 
ἕννυμι. 

ἕεστο, 3 sing. plpf. pass. Ep. of 
ἐννυμι. 

ἕζομαι, to sit. 

én, fem. of ἑός, his, ete. 

enxe, Ep. for ἧκε, 3 sing. aor. 1 of 
inp. 

envdave, Ep. for ἥνδανε, 3 sing. 
impf. act. from ἁνδάνω. 

ἕθεν, Ep. and Att. poet. gen. for 
ἕο οὗ, masc. and fem. his, her, of 
him, of her. 

€6nv, aor. 1 pass. from ἵἴημι. 

eiavos, Ep. for éavés. 

ein, the sun’s warmth. 

_ εἵλιγμα, poet. for ἕλιγμα. 

εἵλιγμαι, perf. pass. from ἑλίσσω. 

eihixaro, Ion. 3 pl. plpf. pass. from 
ἑλίσσω. 

εἵλκυσα, aor. 1 act. of ἕλκω. 

εἷλκύσθην, aor. 1 pass. of ἕλκω. " 

εἷλξα, less usu. aor. 1 act. from 
ἕλκω than εἵλκυσα. 

εἷλον and εἱλόμην, aor. 2 act. and 
mid. of αἱρέω. 

εἱλόπεδον, rarer form for θειλό- 
medov, a sunshiny place. 

εἵἱλύω, to wind. 

Eidos, Helot. 

εἷμα, a dress, 





APPENDIX. 


εἱμαρμένη, fate. 

εἶμεν, 1 pl. aor. 2 apt for εἵημεν of 
ἵημι. 

sage part. perf. pass. of 2 ἕννυμι.. 

εἵμην, aor. 2 opt. mid. of ins. 

εἵνεκα, poet. for ἕνεκα. 

εἷος, Ep. aor. for ἕως. 

εἴργνυμι, to shut.in. 

εἱρκτή, prison. 

εἷς, pia, εἵν, one. 

eis, part. aor. 2 of type. 

εἷσα, I put, placed. 

εἰσάμῃν, aor. mid. of εἷσα, Att. 

eiro, 3 sing. aor. 2 ind. (also opt.) 
mid. of tne. 

εἵως, Ep. for ἕως, constantly. 

“ExaBn, Hecuba. 

‘ExdAn, Hecale (an Attic borough). 

Ἑκαμήδη, Hecamede (a proper 
name). 

ἑκὰς, afar. 

ἕκαστος, every one. 

ἑκάτερος, each of two. 

ἑκατόν, a hundred. 

ἕκητι, by means of. 

ἑκκαίδεκα, sixteen. 


Ἕκτωρ, Hector (a proper name). 


ἑκὼν, willing. 

ἕλειαι, meadow-nymphs. 

Ἐλειοι, the Helei (a people of Ara- 
bia; Strabo). 

ἕλειός, the dormouse. 

Ἑλένη, Helen. 


Ἕλενος, Helenus. 


ἑλέσθαι, inf. aor. 2 mid. of αἱρέω. 
ἕλη, the heat. 

ἕλῃ, 3 subj. aor. 2 of αἱρέω. 
ἕληαι, Ion. for ἕλῃ. 

Ἑλίκη, Helice (a proper name). 


APPENDIX. 


“Ἑλικὼν, Helicon. 

ἑλινύω, to rest. 

ἕλιξ, anything twisted. 

ἑλίσσω, to turn round. 

ἕλκος, a wound. 

ἑλκύω, to draw. 

Ἑλλάς, Greece. 

ἑλλέβορος, hellebore. 

Ἕλλην, a Greek. . 

Ἑλλήσποντος, the Hellespont. 

ἕλμινς, @ worm. 

ἕλοιμι, ἑλοίμην, opt. aor. 2 act. and 
mid. of αἱρέω. 

Ἕλος, Helos (a city). 

ἕλος, wet, low ground. 

ἔμεν and ἕμεναι, poet. for εἶναι, inf. 
aor. 2 from ἵημι. 

ἕμενος, part. aor. 2 mid. of tye. 

ἕνος (καὶ évos), a year old. 

ἑνότης, unity. 

evvupt, to clothe one’s self in. 

ἕξ, Six. 

ἑξῆς, in order. 

eo, Ep. gen. of the pers. pron. 
3 pers. for οὗ. 

ἑοῖ, Ep. dat. sing. of pers. pron. οὗ 
for of. 

ἑοῖο, Ep. gen. from és for ἑοῦ. 

ἑοῖς, dat. pl. from éds. 

ἑορτὴ, a feast. 

€os, €n, €ov, Ion. and Ep. for ὅς, 7, 
ὅν, his, her own. 

ἕπευ, lon. imp. from ἕπομαι. 

ἕπομαι, to follow. 

ἑπτά, seven. 

᾿ ἕρκος, a fence. 

ἕρμα, a prop, support. 

ἑρμηνεύω, to interpret, 





205 


Ἑρμῆς, Hermes. 

ἕρπω, to creep. 

ἔρση (καὶ épon), dew. 

és, imp. aor. 2 from iu. 

éopa, a stalk. 

ἑσμός, anything let loose, esp. a 
swarm of bees. 

ἑσπέρα, evening. 

"Eorepos, Hesperus (a _ proper 
name). 

ἕσσων, Ion. for ἥσσων. 

éoraa, pf. 2 of ἵστημι. 

éoraxa, transit. perf. of ἵστημι. 

ἑστάμεν, ἑστάμεναι, Ep. for ἑστάναι, 
inf. perf. syncop. from ἵστημι. 

ἕσταμεν, 1 pl. perf. syncop. of 
ἴστημι. 

ἑσταότες, pl. from ἑσταώς. 

ἕστασαν, 3 pl. plpf. syncop. of 
ἵστημι. 

ἑστᾶσι, 8 pl. perf. syncop. of 
ἵστημι. 

ἔστατε, 2 pl. perf. syncop. of ἵστημι. 

ἕστηκα, perf. act. from ἵστημι. 

ἑστήξω, inf. fut. from ἵστημι. 

ἑστία, the hearth. 

ἑστιῶ, to entertain hospitably. 

ἕστο, 3 sing. plpf. pass. of ἕννυμι. 

ἔστωρ, a peg. 

ἑταῖρος, a comrade. 

ἕτερος, the other. 

ἑτοῖμος, at hand, ready. 

εὑρίσκω, to find. 

ἑφθὸς, boiled, dressed. 

ἕψω, to boil. 

ἕω, gen. and ace. sing. from ἕως, 
the dawn. 

ἕω, Ion. subj. aor. 2 of ἴημι. 

ἑῷ, dat. from ἑὸς, Hom. 


206 


ἕωλος, a day old. 

ἑώρα, 3 sing. imp. act. from ὁράω. 
ἑώρακα, perf. act. from ὁράω. 

ἕως; so long as. 


H. 

ἡβάσκω, Lat. pubescere. 

ἥβη, manhood. — 

ἡβὸς, ripe. 

“Hynpov, Hegemon (a proper name). 

‘Hynoaios, Hegeseus (a proper 
name). 

᾿Ηγησανδρίδας, Hegesandridas (a 
proper name). 

᾿Ηγησιάναξ, Hegesianax (a proper 
name). 

Ἡγησίας, Hegesias (a propername). 

“Hynotxdéns, Hegesicles (a proper 
name). 

“‘Hynoivovs, Hegesinus (a proper 
name). 

Ἡγήσιππος, Hegesippus (a proper 
name). 

ἡγοῦμαι, to go before. 

ἥδε, fem. from ὅδε. 

ἥδομαι, to delight. 

Ἡδύλειον, Mt. Hedylius (in Phocis). 

ἡδύς, ἡδεῖα, ἡδύ, sweet. 

ἧκα, aor. 1 of Ὧμι. 

ἥκιστος, the least. 

ἥκω, I am come. 

ἡλικία, age. 

ἡλίκος, as big as. 

HALE, in the prime of life. 

ἥλιος, the sun. 

ἡλίσκος, dim. from ἧλος, a little nail. 

ἧλος, a nail. 

hat, to be set. 


ἡμέρα, day. 





APPENDIX. 


ἥμερος, tamed. 

ἥμην, impf. from ἧμαι. 

ἡμίονος, a half-ass, i. e. a mule. 

ἥμισυς, α half, 

ἧμμαι, perf. pass. from ἅπτω. 

ἡμωδία, lon. for αἱμωδία. 

ἥμων, a darter. 

ἥν, ace. sing. fem. from relat. pron. 
ὅς. 

ἡνία, ίων, τά, the reins. 

ἡνία, ας; ἡ; the bitted bridle. 

ἡνίκα, adv. when. 

ἧπαρ, the liver. 

Ἥρα, Juno. 

Ἡρακλῆς, Hercules. 

Ἡράκων, Heracon (a proper name). 

Ἡρέας, Hereas (a proper name). 

Ἡρόδικος, Herodicus (a proper 
name). 

Ἡρόδοτος, Herodotus (a proper 
name). a 

Ἡρώδης, Herodes (a proper name). 

ἥρως, a hero. 

joa, aor. 1 from ἥδω. 

joa, 2 sing. from ἧμαι. 

Ἡσαΐας, Jesaias. 

ἥσατο, Ep. 8 sing. aor. 1 from 
ἥδομαι. 

ἥσειν, inf. fut. of tye. 

ἧσθαι, inf. from ἧμαι. 

Ἡσίοδος, Hesiod. 

ἧσο, 2 sing. imper. from ἧμαι, Hom. 

ἡσσάομαι, to be worsted. 

ἥσσων, to be less. 

ἧσται, 8 sing. from ἧμαι. 

ἧστο, 8 sing. impf. of ἧμαι. 

ἥσυχος, calm. 

jo, fut. of type. 

Ἥφαιστος, Hephaistos. 


APPENDIX. 


I. 

ἱᾶσι, 8 pl. pres. from ine for ἱέασι. 

iBioxos, Lat. hibiscus, a kind of 
marsh-mallow. 

ἱδρόω, to sweat. 

ἱδρύω, to seat. 

ἱδρῶ, ace. from ἱδρώς for ἱδρῶτα. 

ἵδρωα, pustules. 

ἱδρώς, sweat. 

ἵει, 3 sing. impf. Jon. and Att. of 
inp. 

ieis, ἱεῖσα, iév, pres. part. from tpt. 

ἵεμαι, pres. pass. and mid. from ine. 

ἱέμεν, ἱέμεναι, Ep. pres. inf. from 
inpe for ἱέναι. 

iev, Kol. for ἵεσαν, 3 pl. impf. from 
ἴημι. 

Ἵερά (νῆσος), Hiera, one of the 
Lipari islands. 

ἱέραξ, a hawk, 

ἱερὸς, sacred. 

ἱζάνω (i¢w), to make to sit, seat. 

ἴημι, to set agoing. 

ixavos, able. 

ἱκάνω, to come, to arrive. 

ἱκέτης, α suppliant. 

ἵκηαι, 2 sing. subj. aor. 2 from 
ἱκνέομαι. 

ἱκνοῦμαι, to arrive. 

ixw, to come. 

ἵλαος (Att. ἵλεως), soothed. 

ἱλάρια, a festival of mirth. 

idapos, cheerful. 

ἱλάσθητι, aor. pass. imp. of ἱλά- 
σκομαι. 

ἱλάσκομαι; to appease, soothe. 

ἱλήκω, to be gracious. 

ἱμὰς, a leathern strap. | 

ἱμάτιον, a piece of dress. 





207 


ἵμερος, longing. 

iva, in order that. 

Ἱππίας, Hippias. 

Ἱπποκόων, Hippocoin. 

Ἱπποκράτης, Hippocrates. 

Ἱππόλεω ἄκρη, promontory of Hip- 
polaus. 

Ἱππόλοχος, Hippolochus. 

Ἱππολύτη, Hippolyte. 

ἵππος, horse. 

ἵπταμαι, to fly. 

ἵστημι, to stand. 

Ἱστιαία, Histica. 

Ἱστιαῖος, Histicus. 

ἱστιάτωρ, the chief offerer. 

ἱστίον, a sail, 

ἱστορία; history. 

ἱστός, a ship’s mast. 


O. 


ὅγε, ἦγε, Toye, the demonstr, pron. 
he, she, it. 

ὅδε, ἥδε, rode, the demonstr. pron. 
Lat. hicce, heecce, hocce. 

ὁδηγός, a guide. 

ὁδοιπόρος, a traveller. 

ὁδὸς, street. 

ὅθεν, whence. 

οἷον, neut. from οἷος. 

oiovavei, for οἷον ἄν εἰ, just as if. 

οἷος, a, ov, such as. 

ὁλκὰς, merchantman. 

ὁλκέω, to draw. 

dApos, a round, smooth stone. 

ὁλοκαυτέω, to bring a burnt-offering. 

ὅλος, whole, entire. 

ὅλωσις, a making whole. 

dpados, a noise. 


208 

ὁμαλὸς, level, smooth. 

ὁμάριον, temple of Jupiter. 

ὁμαρτέω, to meet. 

ὁμαρτῆ; adv. together. 

ὁμάς, the whole. 

ὁμήγυρις, an assembly. 

oun, of the same age. 

Ὅμηρος, Homer. 

ὅμηρος, hostage. 

ὅμιλος, a throng of people. 

ὁμίχλη, fog. 

ὅμοιος, similar. 

ὁμοκλέω, to call out. 

ὁμός, one and the same, common. 

ὁμοῦ, together. 

ὁμῶς, equally. 

ὅμως, nevertheless. 

ὅπλὴ, @ hoof. 

ὅπλον, implement. 

ὁπόθεν, whence. 

ὅποι, adv. whither. 

ὁποῖος, of what sort. 

ὁπόσος, ἡ; ov, as many. 

ὁπόταν, whensoever. 

ὁπότερος, which of two. 

ὅπου, where. 

ὅπως, in what manner. 

ὁράω, to see. 

ὅρηαι or ὁρῆαι, 2 sing. pres. mid. of 
ὁράω. 

ὅρημι, Aol. and Dor. for ὁράω, 
hence inf. ὁρῆν. 





APPENDIX. 


ὅρητο or ὁρῆτο, 3 sing. impf. mid. 
of ὁράω. 

ὁρίζω, to divide (as a border). 

ὅρκος, the witness of an oath. 

ὁρμάω, to set in motion, urge. 

ὁρμέατο, Ion. for ὥρμηντο, 3 pl. 
perf. pass. of ὁρμάω. 

ὅρμέω, to lie at anchor. 

ὁρμή, attack, violent pressure. 

ὁρμίζω, to bring to a safe anchorage. 

ὅρμος, a necklace. 

ὅρος, a boundary, limit. 

ds, ἥ, 6, who, ete. 

ὁσημέραι, daily. 

ὅσιος, hallowed. 

ὅσος, as great as. 

ὁσῶραι, every hour. 

ὅστις, whosoever. 

ὅταν, adv. whenever. 

ὅτε, when. 

ὅτι, for that, because. 


Qo. 


ὧδε, Att. ὡδί, from ὅδε, in this wise. 
ὥμιλλα, a kind of game. 

ὥρα, hour, season. 

ὡραῖος, beautiful, ete. 

ὥριος, timely. 

ὡς, adv. thus, so, etc. 

ὥσπερ, adv. even as, just as. 

ὥστε, adv. for, so that, in order. 


REMARK 2. When two words have the same form, but are of dif- 
ferent meanings, the ancient Greeks often indicated the difference 
by placing a breathing over the vowel or p in the middle of a word; 
thus, ἐσἥλατο (aorist of εἰσάλλομαι, ἐσάλλομαι), but ἐσἤλατο (aorist of 
σάλλομαι), κοτυλλήῤῥυτος (κοτύλη pew), but κοτυλήῤυτος (κοτύλη ἀρύω). 


APPENDIX. $209 


ACCENT. 


Tue accents are three. The acute ’, the grave ‘, and the 
circumflex ~% The acute can stand only on one of the last 
three syllables of a word; the circumflex, on one of the last 
two; and the grave, only on the last syllable. 

In case of a diphthong, the accent stands over the second 
vowel; thus, παύσω, ταῦτα, ἐκείνους, ἐκεῖ, etc. 

The acute may stand either on a long or a short syllable; 
thus, τρέχω, λόγους, ἐκείνους. The acute only can stand on a 
long penultima, followed by a long ultima: μήκους, γλώσσης. 
When the Nominative and Accusative of uncontracted nouns 
are accented on the ultima, said cases are oxytone: ἡ τιμή, τὴν 
τιμήν, ἡ χαρά, τὴν χαράν, ὃ αἰών, ὃ καρπός. When a word is 
accented on the antepenult, said syllable is always proparoxy- 
tone: βασιλεύοντος. 

Words ending in ev and ov, when accented on the ultima, 
are perispomena; thus, εὖ, ποῦ except ἰδού, ἰού, and ov. 

When the Vocative of nouns in evs and w of the third de- 
clension ends in ev and oz, said case must be perispomenon 
if accented on the ultima: ὦ βασιλεῦ, ὦ αἰδοῖ, ὦ σαπφοῖ. 

When the Genitive and Dative of nouns end with a long 
syllable, said cases must be penepome ne, if accented on the 
ultima: τῆς τιμῆς, TH τιμῇ; τοῦ καρποῦ, TO καρπῷ, TOV τιμῶν, τοῖς 
καρποῖς. 

A contract ultima is always Sree if the acute 
stood on the penultima before contraction: τιμῶ (τιμάω), πλα- 
κοῦς (πλακόεις). Adverbs in ws, if accented on the ultima, are 
perispomena: καλῶς, εὐσεβῶς. 

Remark 1. The circumflex stands on the Nominative and Accu- 
sative of many monosyllabic words; thus, γραῦς, ναῦς, βοῦς, χοῦς, μῦς, 
δρῦς, σῦς, οὖς, πῦρ, σκῶρ, εἷς, πᾶς, πᾶν, etc. 

Remark 2. The circumflex stands also on Samii ee? eo 
adverbs and conjunctions; thus, ed, φεῦ, ὦ, ad, viv, οὖν, γοῦν, 7, μῶν, 
πῇ; ποῖ, ποῦ; πῶς, etc. 


210 APPENDIX. 


In accenting a word, a syllable Jong by position is treated 
as short; thus, λέξις, τάξις (but πρᾶξις, πρᾶγμα, because the let- 
ter a in these words is long not by position, but by nature). 
Final αἱ and οἱ have the effect of short vowels on the accent . 
of the penult and antepenult: λύονται, ἄνθρωποι, πολῖται, νῆσοι, 
etc. 

_ Not so, however, in the optative mode: παιδεύοι and the 
adverb οἴκοι, at home. 

When the wltima is long, the antepenult is not accented: 
ἀνθρώπου, ἀνθρώπῳ: The Genitives Singular and Plural of 
some nouns of the third declension are exceptions, 6. g. πόλεως, 
πόλεων, πήχεως, πήχεων. 

Primitive words accent the syllable belonging to the root; 
thus, φίλος. Derivative words accent the syllable which 
specifies or defines; thus, φιλικός, ἄφιλος. Hence we have 
the following rules: 

Whenever a new syllable is prefixed to a word, the accent 
is thrown back if the ultima permits it; thus, Avw, ἔλυον. 

When a new syllable is affixed to a word, the accent is 
thrown forward if the ultima requires it; 6. g. παράδειγμα, 
παραδείγματος, παραδειγμάτων, φῶς, φωτίζω, φωτιζόμενος, φωτιζο- 
μένη. Final ἔ and y, after a short vowel, exclude the acute 
from the antepenult, but not the circumflex from the penult ; 
thus we have ἡλιξ, but νυκτοφύλαξ instead of νυκτόφυλαξ. 


SPECIAL RULES (FIRST DECLENSION). 
Endings. | 

The following Masculine nouns in ἧς are of the first declen- 
sion : 

1. Proper patronymic nouns in dys; thus, ᾿Ατρείδης, son of 
Atreus ; Νεστορίδης, son of Nestor. 

2. Common nouns in τῆς ; thus, πολίτης, a citizen ; ληστής, 
a robber. | 

3. Nouns (common or proper) compounded with verbs; 


APPENDIX. One 


thus, γεωμέτρης, ὦ geometer ; βιβλιοπώλης, a book-seller. Ex- 
cept nouns compounded with φαίνομαι, to uppear; thus, ᾽Αρι- 
στοφάνης, Aristophanes ; ΔΛεξιφάνης, Lexiphanes ; and a few 
foreign nouns. 

4, Nouns compounded with Feminine nouns of the first 
declension; thus, ᾿Ολυμπιονίκης (νίκη), @ conqueror in the 
Olympic games ; ᾿Αρχιδίκης (δίκη), chief judge. 


Accent. ἰδὲ 

1. Nouns of this declension form the Genitive Plural per-” 
ispomenon. 

Three masculines have an irregular accent in the Gen. PI.: 
χρήστης, usurer, Gen. Pl. χρήστων (but χρηστῶν, Gen. Pl. of 
the adjective χρηστός, good), χλούνης, living or feeding alone, 
Gen. Pl. χλούνων (but χλουνῶν, Gen. Pl. of the adjective χλου- 
vos, epith. of gold in Hesychius (Lexicographus), and ἐτησίαι, 
annual winds, Gen. Pl. ἐτησίων. So also the Feminine ἀφύη, 
anchovy, Gen. Pl. ἀφύων (but ἀφυῶν, Gen. Pl. of the adjective 
ἀφυής, dull). 

2. Adjectives whose Masculine is of the third declension 
have the Genitive Plural Feminine perispomenon; thus, 6 rv- 
φθείς, ἡ τυφθεῖσα, τῶν τυφθεισῶν. Adjectives whose Masculine | 
is of the second declension accent the Genitive Plural Femi- 
nine regularly (rule Ist): 6 ἅγιος, of ἅγιοι, τῶν ἁγίων, ἡ ἁγία, αἱ 
ἅγιαι, τῶν ἁγιῶν. 

Case-Endings. 

1, Nouns ending in a pure or pa and a few proper nouns 
like Λήδα, Leda, Τέλα, Gela, Φιλομήλα, Philomela, ᾿Ανδρομέδα, 
Andromeda, and contract substantives and adjectives in a 
retain the a in all the cases of the Singular number. 

2. Masculine nouns in as, with the exception of the Geni- 
tive Singular, follow the same rule. 

3. Masculine nouns of this declension form the Accusative 
Singular by changing o of the Nominative tov. The Femi- 
nines by affixing v to the Nominative Singular. 


212 APPENDIX. 


4. Masculine words in ys form the Vocative Singular in 7. 
But nouns in τῆς and πῆς and names of nations and words | 
compounded with πωλῶ, to sell, τρίβω, to rub, perp, to meas- 
ure, apxw, to be first, dvodpa, to purchase, and λατρεύω, to serve, 
form the Vocative Singular in a short; thus, πολῖτα (Nom. 
πολίτης, & citizen); γεωμέτρα (Nom. γεωμέτρης, a geometer); 
βιβλιοπῶλα (Nom. βιβλιοπώλης, a book-seller) 3 ete. 

5. A few Doric nouns in as form their Genitive Singular 
in a by omitting the termination 0; thus, Πυθαγόρας τοῦ Πυθα- 
ι γόρα, ὃ Λεωνίδας τοῦ Λεωνίδα (from the Dorie Gen. Πυθαγόραο, 
Λεωνέδαο). In the same way many proper foreign nouns and 
many nouns of the Hellenistic Greek form their Genitive Sin- 
gular; thus, τοῦ ᾿Αννίβα, τοῦ ᾽Ορόντα. 


Quantity of Final a. 

The following Feminine words in a have the final a of the 
Nominative Singular long: 

1. Adjectives whose Masculine is of the second declension; 
thus, ἅγιος, sacred, ἁγία. Except TETELPOS, πέπειρα, Lat. matu- 
rus, and nouns which suffer contraction in the penultima; 
thus, δίζος, δῖος, διᾶ (of Jupiter), holy, pure ; Xiios, Χῖος, Xia 
(of or from Chios), Chian. | 

2. Paroxytone nouns in ia; thus, ware wickedness ; σοφία, 
wisdom. 

3. Dissyllabic nouns in ea and nouns in ea derived from 
verbs ending in evw; thus, μνεία, memory; βασιλεία, kingdom 
(βασιλεύω). 

4, All oxytone nouns; thus, χαρά, joy; λαλιά, speech. 

5. Dissyllabic nouns in pa which have a vowel in the pen- 
ultima; thus, ὥρα, hour; θήρα, the chase. Except πρῶρᾶ, a 
ship’s prow; χύτρᾶ, an earthen pot; σφῦρᾶ, a hammer. 

6. Paroxytone nouns in oa and ea; thus, χρόᾶ, the skin; 
Tod, JTass; μηλέᾷ, an apple-tree; Teyéa, Tegea. 

7. Nouns of more than two syllables in aa; thus, ἐλαία, the 
olive-tree ; κεραία, a horn. Except the names of a few cities; 
thus, Φώκαιᾶ, Phocea ; Τλαάταιᾶ, Platea. 


APPENDIX. 215 


The following words have the a short: 

1. Feminine adjectives whose Masculine is of the third 
declension ; thus, πᾶς, πᾶσα, every (whole). 

2. All disyllabic nouns in aw; thus, μαῖα, good spies ᾧ 
γραῖα, an old woman. 

8. Common nouns in ea which are derived from common 
nouns in evs; thus, ἱερεύς, ἱέρεια, @ priestess ; ᾿Αλεξανδρεύς, ᾿Αλε- 
ξάνδρεια, Alexandria. 

4, Abstract nouns in ea which are derived from adjectives 
in ys of the third declension; thus, εὐγενής, εὐγένεια, nobility. 

5. Abstract nouns in oa derived from adjectives in oos, ous ; 
thus, εὔνοος, εὔνους, εὔνοια, good will. 

6. Substantives in va; thus, μυῖα, ὦ fly. So also the oxy- 
tone nouns ὀργυιά, strictly the length of the outstretched arms ; 
ἀγυιά, ὦ way. 

7. All nouns which in the Genitive Singular change a into 
7; thus, Μοῦσα, Muse; γλῶσσα; a tongue. 

8. Dissyllabic nouns in pa which have a diphthong in the 
penultima; thus, σφαῖρα, a sphere; πεῖρα, a trial. Except 
alOpa, a clear (bright) sky; Φαίδρα, Phedra; aidpa, breeze ; 
λαύρα, an alley 3 σαύρα, α lizard. 

9. Nouns in τρια and repa derived from nouns in τῆς and 
«λα. and all propapoxytane nouns; thus, ποιητής, ποιήτριάἄ, ὦ 
poetess ; σωτήρ, σώτειρα, frequ. an epith. of protecting god- 
desses ; τράπεζα. 


SPECIAL*®RULES (SECOND DECLENSION). 


Accent. | 
1. Nouns compounded with νόος and πλόος, even when con- 
tracted, are paroxytone; thus, περίπλοος, περίπλους, περιπλόου, 
περίπλου, ὦ sailing round ; εὔνοος, εὔνους, εὐνόου, εὔνου, kind- 
hearted. ‘The termination oa, however, always remains un- 
contracted: εὔνοα, εὔπλοα. 


REMARK. ὕογδοος, the eighth, and λιθοξόος, a stone-mason, dre never 
contracted; but dvrigoos, hostile, δορυξόος, spear-polishing, and mpédxoos, 


214 APPENDIX. 


a pitcher, are contracted; thus, dvrigoos, ἀντίξους, ἀντιξόου, ἀντίξου, 
προχόου, πρόχου. These nouns, however, sometimes drop o of the 
stem; thus, ἄντιξος, δόρυξος. 


Peculiarities of Gender. 

1. Many nouns in changing their gender change their sig- 
nification, e. 8: ὃ ζυγός, the yoke, ἡ ζυγός, the scale ; 3 6 ἵππος, ὦ 
horse, ἡ ἵππος, ὦ mare. 

2. Many nouns of the ΡΣ ΠῚ or Feminine gender in 
the Singular are Neuter in the Plural; thus, 6 δεσμός, τὰ 
Seopa, setters ; ἡἣ κέλευθος, τὰ κέλευθα, a road (ways); “ ὑγρὰ 
καὶ ἰχθυόεντα κέλευθα. 


SPECIAL RULES (THIRD DECLENSION),. 
Accent. 

1. Monosyllabic substantives are oxytone, e. g. μήν, ὦ 
month; Onp, a wild beast; χείρ, a hand. Nouns, however, 
which have lengthened their stem-vowels, or whose Nomina- 
tives are contracted from barytone or oxytone nouns, are per- 
ispomena; thus, pvos, μῦς, @ Mouse; πυρός, πῦρ, fire; (doaros, 
ds), οὖς, the ear. Two nouns, τὸ dos (from φωΐς, @ man) and 
das (from dais, a fire-brand), are oxytone. 

Remark. The vowel which results from contraction, if accented, 
must be perispomenon; thus, γέα-γῆ, earth. Except, (a) when the 
vowel stands before a long ultima; (b) when it stands before the 
antepenult; and (c) when the second of the contracted vowels is 
oxytone, e. g. ἑσταώς, ἑστώς. 

2. Monosyllabic words of this declension accent the Geni- 
tive and Dative of all numbers on the case-ending; the other 
cases are accented on the stem. Except, 

(a) Participles of one syllable, which always accent the 
stem, e. 2. θείς, θέντος, θέντι, θέντα. 

(6) The Genitive Plural of the following nouns: παῖς ὦ 
boy, girl, παίδων; ἡ δάς, torch, δάδων; ἡ φώς, blister, φώδων ; 
κράς, the head (Nom. obsolete), κράτων ; οὖς, ear, ὦτων ; δμώς, 
a slave; Τρώς, a Trojan, Τρώων ; τὸ φῶς, light, φώτων ; θώς, the 


APPENDIX. OTS 


jackal, θώων ; ὃ ons, moth, σέων. The word φωτῶν (of men) 
has for its Nom. Sing. φώς, Gen. Sing. φωτός. 

(c) Some words which have been ¢ontracted from disyl- 
labic stems, e. g. ἔαρ, spring, Gen. ἔαρος or ἦρος, Dat. ἔαρι or ἦρι. 

4, Nouns whose final stem-letter is ὃ are oxytone; thus, 
ἐλπίς, hope, ἐλπίδος. Except the noun ἔρις, strife, ἔριδος, and 
Feminine common nouns in ts, whose Masculine ends in τῆς; 
thus, ὃ προφήτης, prophet, ἡ προφῆτις. 


Adjectives. 


Adjectives are either of three endings, of two, or of one. 
The following adjectives in os are of three endings: 

(a) Verbal in ros and reos; thus, Aexrds, 7, dv, Chosen. 

(6) Adjectives in txos, Aos, vos, pos, and Xéos, 6. g. νομικός, 
uch, ov, ὦ lawyer ; σιγηλός, Ax, λόν, silent ; δεινός, νή, vov, fear- 
ful; αἰσχρός, pd, pov, causing shame; ete. 

(c) Comparatives and superlatives; thus, Avryporepos, orépa, 
ὅτερον; λυπηρότατος, οτάτη, OTatov, from λυπηρός, sorrowful. 
Except a few superlatives which are found of two termina- 
tions among poets and Attic writers; thus, δυσεκβολώτατος ἡ 
Aoxpis (Thuc. ¢ 101), τὴν ὕπατον ἀρχήν (Dion. Hal. ‘Pup. ἀρχ. 
s 1), ὀλοώτατος ὀδμή (Od. δ, 442). 

The following adjectives in os are of two endings: 

(a) Compounds and those which are derived from verbs 
already compounded ; thus, 6 καὶ ἡ ἄσκοπος τὸ ἄσκοπον, impru- 
dent. 

(6) Positive and comparative adjectives in wv: ὃ καὶ ἡ εὐ- 
δαίμων τὸ εὔδαιμον, happy, prosperous. 

( Many mentees sarsporinded from salataniaehs in ts, 
vs, and ovs; thus, ὃ καὶ ἡ εὔχαρις, τὸ εὔχαρι, charming ; ὃ Kal ἡ 
πολύπους, τὸ πολύπουν, mMany-footed. 

(α) Words compounded with γέλως and κέρας, which are 
also declined according to the second Attic declension; thus, 
ὁ Kal ἡ πολύγελως, τὸ πολύγελων, τοῦ πολύγελω Kal πολυγέλωτος, 


laughing much. 


216 APPENDIX. 


The following adjectives are of one ending: 

(a) Adjectives which have been compounded with sub- 
stantives keep the latter unchanged even after composition ; 
thus, 6 καὶ ἡ ἄπαις, childless ; μακρόχειρ, long-armed. 

Remark. The Genitive and Dative Plural of these adjectives are 
found among the poets in the Neuter gender also. 


Feminine Endings of Adjectives in os. 
- The following adjectives. in os of three endings form their 
Feminine: ᾿ 
(a) In η, if there is no vowel or p before the termination ; 
thus, ἀγαθός, ἀγαθή, kind. 
(ὁ) In a, if they end in a pure or in pos, poos, and ρεος ; thus, 
ἅγιος, ayia, holy; καθαρός, καθαρά, proper, clean. 


Neuter Endings. 

Adjectives in os form their neuter in ov; thus καλός, καλή, 
καλόν, good. The following form their neuter in o: 

(α) ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο, another ; ὅς, ἥ, 6, who, which ; αὐτός, 
αὐτή, αὐτό, self (Lat. ipse); ἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη, ἐκεῖνο, there (Lat. 
alle); οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο, this, that. 

Demonstratives of quality, quantity, and age form their 
neuter in the following manner: τοσοῦτος, τοσαύτη, τοσοῦτο(ν), 
such (in quantity or number); τοιοῦτος, τοιαύτη, τοιοῦτο(ν), 
such (in quality); τηλικοῦτος, τηλικαύτη, τηλικοῦτο(ν), such (in 
age or size), ' 





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